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The papers in this volume examine various aspects of the emerging markets for ecosystem services (watershed services, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity protection) in the Panama Canal Watershed. This introductory chapter provides context by: outlining the questions addressed; describing the structure and underlying framework of this volume and the nature of the course that produced it; and briefly discussing how the limitations of science affect attempts to market ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gura-Ferda forest is part of the moist evergreen Afromontane forest in southwestern Ethiopia. Despite the fact that large sections of this forest have become increasingly disturbed and fragmented since 1984, there is no scientific data on the dynamics of woody species diversity and forest carbon pools. As a result, the research was carried out to assess and compare the diversity of woody species and carbon stock along natural forest to farmland conversion gradient. Data were collected from natural forest, forest-farm interface, and farmland that were previously forest land. For the inventory of woody species, 90 nested plots (20 m*20 m for natural forest and forest-farm interface; 50 m*100 m for farmland) were established. To collect litter and soil samples, three 1 m*1 m subplots were established. Shannon-Wiener diversity index is significantly higher (p <.05) in natural forests (H' = 2.72 ± 0.31) than in forest-farm interface (H' = 1.42 ± 0.49) and farmland (H' = 1.08 ± 0.57). Natural forest total carbon stocks were approximately 1.55 and 2.64 times higher than forest-farm interface and farmland, respectively. This study revealed that there was a substantial reduction in species diversity and carbon stocks along the conversion gradient of natural forest to farmland. The Natural Resource Management sector of the district should use management approaches to reduce the pressure on natural forest, which has resulted in a substantial decrease in species richness and carbon stocks along the natural forest to farmland conversion gradient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest-based ecotourism in global perspective is managed by various stakeholders while promoting sustainable forest management. This review article attempts to identify forest-based ecotourism destinations in Sri Lanka, analyze the experiences of good governance, and evaluate local livelihoods and forest conservation outcomes. Within the diverse landscapes, national park and sanctuaries, rain forest trails, conservation forest trials, wetland sanctuaries, and indigenous operated ecotourism ventures are identified as the appropriate destinations. The experiences of good governance are discussed in terms of structure and integration, involvement and management, accountability practices, and culture of transparency. The enrichment of the local livelihoods is evaluated based on natural, physical, social, financial, and human capital development. The natural resource conservation activities prevention of deforestation and forest degradation, preservation of biological diversity, improvement of long-term production capacity of ecosystems, and wise management of natural resources are elaborated through local community outcomes, visitor outcomes, natural biophysical environment outcomes, wildlife outcomes, and organizational outcomes. Resource exploitation, gene piracy, wildlife crimes, and trade of protected flora and fauna have been examined as the bad side of the ecotourism. The policies suggested for sustainable development are conceptualization of ecotourism, community-based ecotourism, scientific and systematic process, and appropriate code of ethics and conduct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loss of urban greeneries in rapidly developing Kuala Lumpur has prompted urban residents to conserve the remnant urban forests as urban community forests. This study was carried out at Kota Damansara Community Forest Reserve (KDCFR) and examined i) how urban residents in partnership with forestry department sustainably manage this forest reserve, ii) visitors' uses of KDCFR, and iii) their willingness toward conservation. Following the idea of peoples' perception on the use and management of forests, data were collected through an online survey and physical interviews by administering a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Current management of KDCFR includes forest trails maintenance, forest protection, and community outreach activities. To 97% respondents, forest and trails had been managed and protected well, and some (18–29%) reported negative impacts of trails on forest. Visitors visited KDCFR few days in a month for coming close to the nature and forest walk (51%), recreation (42%), health benefits (33%), stress reduction (30%), cycling (29%) and meeting friends (21%). To 69% respondents, they were highly satisfied with the visit to KDCFR. Community management of KDCFR had brought positive attitude in visitors, and 94% of them were willing to contribute toward conservation through trail management, forest protection and donation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Restoring the degraded areas with vegetation cover is an optimal strategy to mitigate land degradation. The objective of this study was to examine the composition and structure of woody vegetation in community and state forests in Tehuledere District, South Wollo, Ethiopia. The vegetation data were collected by sampling a total of 40 systematically laid sample plots (i.e. 20 samples in each forest type) and analyzed to determine woody species composition (i.e. number of species, frequency, density, dominance, and importance value index) and forest structure (i.e. diameter distribution, basal area, and biodiversity index). The vegetation structure was described by diameter class using inverse J-shaped as this type of distribution considered being indicative of a stable population structure or good regeneration status. The results revealed that significantly greater densities of seedlings and saplings were found in the community forest than that of the state forest. Moreover, a total of 45 woody species, representing 29 families were recorded in this forest. However, 29 woody species, representing 25 families were only found in the state forest, suggesting that 25 woody species were common in both forest types. However, 20 woody species were found only in the community forest, whereas only three species were exclusively obtained in the state forest. Woody plant densities were 10,881 and 9,501 individuals' ha−1 in community and state forests, respectively. The result suggested that Juniperus procera was the most dominant species in both forest types. The community forest had a diversity value of 2.26, while the corresponding value for the state forest was only 2.07. Overall, as compared to the state forest, the community forest had a better status in several biological parameters. Generally, the results emphasize the importance of the relative advantage of the community forestry approach to restore, enhance, and maintain (e.g. enrichment planting, pruning, and selective cutting) the forest resources over the conventional or protectionist way of the state forest management. Therefore, intervention for legal framework and institutional development particularly through formal recognition of people's ownership and right over the conservation management of forests is essential toward sustainable forestry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests in the Philippines, and many other developing countries in the tropics, have been extensively cleared over recent decades. There have been increasing efforts to reforest these cleared lands to achieve both socio-economic and environmental objectives. To date, planted forests have been dominated by monocultures. There has however been increasing calls to use mixtures of species, although there is limited evidence to support mixed-species plantations being a better or win-win approach to reforestation. To address this, we compared the tree growth, forest structure, and tree species diversity performance of monoculture and mixed-species tree plantations across 168 sites (251 survey plots) on Leyte Island, the Philippines. Our results indicate that mixtures of fast-growing exotics species had better growth performance compared to monocultures of fast-growing exotics species, and also better tree species diversity performance at both the plot and landscape scale. Our results suggest that mixtures of exotic or native species can provide benefits over monoculture plantations. Mixtures of productive exotic species are most suited to situations where the production function of the forest is most important, while mixtures of native species are most suited to situations where the biodiversity function of the forest is most important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deadwood is an important component for conserving carbon stock (C-stock) and maintaining species diversity in forests. In the last years, some studies emphasized that the estimation of deadwood C-stock is a crucial aspect to understand the role of boreal forests as potential carbon sink. The aim of the present study is to provide new data about deadwood volume and C-stock in the mountain birch forests – pure mountain birch stands and mixed stands – of the Kola Peninsula (Russia). In 28 sampling plots randomly located in the Khibiny Mountains, quantitative and qualitative data on deadwood (logs, snags, stumps) were collected and processed. The results show on average 126 logs, 127 snags, and 225 stumps per hectare of mountain birch forest. The average deadwood volume is 23.9 m3 ha−1, while the deadwood C-stock in the mountain birch forests of the Khibiny Mountains is estimated at 3.10 Mg ha−1. The pure mountain birch stands are characterized by an average deadwood volume of 18.4 m3 ha−1, while the mixed stands have an average deadwood volume of 28.6 m3 ha−1. These results highlight an important contribution of deadwood of the boreal forests as carbon storage to mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests are one of the major sources of livelihood that need to be conserved. In India, there have been continuous efforts to evolve a scientific basis for sustainable management of forests. In recent century, this has primarily been addressed through "forest management plans," also known as "working plans." To make the plans uniform for each of the forest management units, guidelines have been issued by Government of India in the name of "working plan code,"which are revised periodically to match present days' requirement. A working plan largely deals with the present state of the forest, outcomes of past management, and proposal of future management on a scientific basis. With a significant lapse of time, the role of forests has been recognized beyond mere supply of timber (a major resource) to fulfilling the demands of minor resources and ecological services. This has transformed the basis of forest management and the working plans. With reference to India, we discuss the relevance of working plan for sustainable management of forests; highlights of the most recent working plan code (2014); relevance of the code with reference to climate change and biodiversity, future perspectives, and recommendations for better management of the forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive species pose a serious threat to the conservation of biodiversity. Forestry is the most important driver of the introduction and spread of invasive woody plant species after horticulture. Nearly 450 invasive tree species have been recorded worldwide, amounting to more than half the world’s total invasive woody flora. Australian-nativeAcacia mearnsiiDe Wild. is one of world’s top invasive alien tree species related to forestry. The negative impacts of alien species spilling over into conservation areas because of forestry are increasingly being recognized, and we examined the context and timing of this Australian species’ arrival in Rwanda. The role ofA. mearnsiiin Rwanda’s colonial and postcolonial forestry and the species’ threat to biodiversity conservation are also investigated. The results suggest thatA. mearnsii(a) was introduced into Rwanda between 1903 and 1918, with the earliest formal record dating back to 1941; (b) was a major forestry tree species until the late 1960s when its use in forestry declined significantly; and (c) demonstrates a comparatively higher occurrence and potential of regeneration within the understory ofEucalyptusplantations within the Congo-Nile ridge buttress; Bufundu and Bushiru; and Budaha, Ndiza, and Buberuka agro-bioclimatic zones. More recently,A. mearnsiihas invaded national parks and forest reserves above 1,600 m of altitude. The most significant case was recorded at Nyungwe National Park (NNP), East Africa’s largest montane rainforest. A study of biomass and spatial patterns of this species in specific ecosystems, such as NNP, is strongly recommended in order to uphold effective conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We used a spatially explicit model of forest dynamics, supported by empirical field data and socioeconomic data, to examine the impacts of human disturbances on a protected forest landscape in Kyrgyzstan. Local use of 27 fruit and nut species was recorded and modeled. Results indicated that in the presence of fuelwood cutting with or without grazing, species of high socioeconomic importance such asJuglans regia,Malusspp., andArmeniaca vulgariswere largely eliminated from the landscape after 50–150 yr. In the absence of disturbance or in the presence of grazing only, decline of these species occurred at a much lower rate, owing to competitive interactions between tree species. This suggests that the current intensity of fuelwood harvesting is not sustainable. Conversely, current grazing intensities were found to have relatively little impact on forest structure and composition, and could potentially play a positive role in supporting regeneration of tree species. These results indicate that both positive and negative impacts on biodiversity can arise from human populations living within a protected area. Potentially, these could be reconciled through the development of participatory approaches to conservation management within this reserve, to ensure the maintenance of its high conservation value while meeting human needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current interest in the conservation of biodiversity is generating a need for forest management and silvicultural techniques designed to maintain the integrity of ecosystems while satisfying society's need for timber resources. The conservation of forest understory plant communities should be a major emphasis of this effort as they contain the majority of plant diversity in most U.S. forests and play a significant role in many ecosystem functions. This article reviews the literature regarding plant responses to disturbance—most importantly changes in light environments—and applies that information to forest management. A comparison of developmental plasticity and rapid acclimation as response pathways is used to discuss plant level responses. At the landscape level, diversity models, silviculture treatments, and site characteristics are used to discuss changes in understory community composition following disturbance. Results of ongoing research on the effects of forest management on floristic patterns for southern New England forests are summarized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A science-based ecosystem management approach requires valid reference points to assess the long-term maintenance of forest systems. Historical range of variability (HRV) in vegetation patterns has served as the initial reference point and has support in the coarse-filter approach to conserving biodiversity (Hunter 1991). The HRV becomes less useful as a reference with increasing human disturbance on the landscape, public aversion to treatments to restore historical states, and continued public expectations for non-historical conditions. The inherent disturbance regime (IDR) is put forward as an alternative or to be used in combination with HRV as a suitable reference point for evaluating long-term maintenance of human-altered ecosystems. The IDR is defined by the types of disturbance; their frequency, intensity, and extent in turn defines the vegetation composition and structure supported over time. Although public expectations for vegetation conditions may differ from historical, these altered states may also be supported by IDR and have long-term maintenance potential. The use of a disturbance reference (IDR) rather than a condition reference (HRV) appears more compatible with the dynamic nature of forests. As an accurate description of historical conditions and disturbance regimes is difficult we recommend that both references be used reiteratively to better refine the other. Increased discontinuity between public expectations for forest conditions and the ability of those conditions to be supported by disturbance regimes may lead to catastrophic disturbance events and a decline in long-term site nutrient capital and biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Enhancing maintenance of desired goods and services in the face of perturbations—i.e., enhancing the ecosystems capacity to adapt—is a key consideration for restoration efforts. Complexity science provides a scientific framework for understanding and studying ecosystems, which can facilitate restoration efforts that increase or restore adaptive capacity. Many characteristics of complex systems have been integrated into ecosystem ecology. However, unifying these concepts under complexity theory provides new insights into ecosystem behavior. Several cases highlight how this can be useful for restoration efforts. For example, including cross-scale hierarchies in the analysis provided a better understanding of variability in ecosystems—e.g., in terms of the diversity in boreal forests and in terms of natural regeneration dynamics. Another example shows how a “mechanistic view” of diversity of traits can help understand how restoration treatments influence selected ecosystem functions, and how restoration treatments can enhance or maintain these functions under changing climate conditions. I conclude by highlighting challenges that need to be overcome to enhance our ability to utilize concepts from complexity science, including addressing uncertainty and quantification of complexity and characteristics of complex systems. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]