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The modern choices of diet are often perceived at odds with the traditional worldviews. This study aimed to test the possibility of improving attitudes toward vegetarians by emphasizing the similarity between vegetarianism and religious fasting. We expected the effects of induction to be moderated by endorsement of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation (SDO-D and SDO-E). Participants (N = 246) were randomly divided into three groups that all read a text about a traditional birthday celebration. The control group read a text about the celebration with meat-based meals, one experimental group read about a celebration with meatless dishes. In the second experimental group it was emphasized that the host became a vegetarian after years of religious fasting. Both inductions improved attitudes toward vegetarians. Only SDO-D proved to be a significant moderator, with induction exhibiting a significant effect at higher levels of SDO-D. The findings inform public communications about reducing meat consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Veganism has become increasingly popular in recent years in many countries including the UK and the USA. Studies have found that vegans tend to be female, lower in Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), and higher in feminist perspectives (FPS). Study 1 (n = 311) investigated the relationships among meat consumption, ethical veganism (using a custom-written scale), RWA, SDO, and FPS, in a series of questionnaires completed online. RWA, SDO, and meat consumption correlated together in one group of variables; FPS and ethical veganism correlated together in a distinct group. In Study 2 participants also completed the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ) as a potential mediator variable. The relationship between RWA, SDO, and FPS as predictors, and ethical veganism as target, was partially mediated by empathy. This pattern of results suggests that individuals who hold egalitarian and inclusive views as regards human-human relationships also tend to have similar views as regards human-animal relationships, with empathy as an underlying common factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meat eaters have a more hierarchical, less egalitarian view at the world than vegetarians. This can be manifested in social dominance orientation, at the intergroup level, but also at the interspecies level, yielding more empathy with nonhuman animals, and at the interpersonal level. We examined if interpersonal motives in human–human relationships and empathy with people are associated with frequency of meat eating, using a cross-sectional survey (N = 580). For the motives power and affiliation, no significant relationships emerged, but the self-enhancement motive was positively related to the number of days that participants ate meat. This predicted additional variance over and above variables at the intergroup and interspecies level, such as social dominance orientation and human-animal continuity. Empathy with people was negatively related to meat consumption, but this was explained by its correlation with empathy with animals. Discussion focuses on the importance of the self-enhancement motive in attachment to meat, the symbol of human superiority, as well as resistance to meat refusers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to explore individual and situational predictors of homeless stigmatization. The aim was to test if individual differences in Belief in a Just World (BJW) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) moderate the effect of quantity and quality of contact on stigmatization of the homeless. One hundred and eighty-seven participants completed measures of BJW, SDO, quality, and quantity of contact, as well as a measure of homeless stigmatization. Results showed that BJW and SDO correlated positively with stigmatization, while both quantity and quality of contact were negatively correlated with stigmatization. SDO was found to moderate the relationship between quantity of contact and stigmatization; more contact with the homeless was related to lower stigmatization for participants with low and moderate SDO scores but not those with high SDO. BJW did not moderate the relationship between contact and stigmatization. Implications regarding the interaction between SDO and contact are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals occupying high-status positions are sometimes victims of the tall poppy syndrome where people want to see them cut down to size. These attitudes reflect a tension between achievement, authority, and equality. In a pre-registered study (Study 1: N = 47,951), and a replication (Study 2: N = 5,569), of two representative New Zealand samples we investigated how social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, political ideologies and self-esteem predicted favoring the fall of the tall poppy. Novel findings showed individuals high in social dominance orientation favored the fall of the tall poppy. In both studies, high authoritarian aggression and submission, and low conventionalism (in Study 1 only) were also associated with negative tall poppy attitudes. So too were individuals with lower self-esteem and who were less conservative in their political ideology. These findings advance our understanding of how group-based hierarchy and inequality relate to attitudes toward individuals in high-status positions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Criminalization of social groups can create new norms for intergroup relations. An example for this is the 2018 amendment to the Hungarian Fundamental Law, which openly criminalizes homeless people. In our research, we investigated whether criminalization of homelessness can become a source of justifying violence against homeless people in the Hungarian context. We assumed that right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation would positively predict support for violence against the homeless, and the acceptance of a criminalizing law can serve as a justification for this. Our hypotheses were tested using a convenience (N = 196) and a representative sample of the population of Budapest (N = 674). We found that both RWA and SDO predicted support for violence, and this connection was mediated by the new law. We also found that justification was influenced by educational level, as the association between SDO and violence increased with higher levels of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate how employees' impression management behavior, targeted upward at organizational leaders, relates to their peer-rated organizational influence, this study considers both a mediating role of peer-rated workplace popularity and a moderating role of self-rated social dominance orientation. Multisource, three-wave data from employees and their peers in the power-distant, collectivistic country of Pakistan reveal that upward impression management behavior, despite raising some potential organizational concerns, is associated with peer-rated workplace popularity for employees, who in turn can wield greater influence over colleagues. The mediating role of peer-rated workplace popularity also is more prominent to the extent that employees accept social hierarchies, because this orientation makes their use of upward impression management tactics to advance their own and their peers' personal interests more purposeful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on Social Dominance Theory (SDT), this study investigates the relationships between ideologically conservative attitudes (social dominance orientation, SDO; right-wing authoritarianism, RWA), legitimizing myths (false belief in asylum seekers as bogus; perception of in-group threats), and citizens' support for restricted reception and rejection of asylum policies. A sample of 539 people living in Italy filled in an anonymous questionnaire administered using a cross-sectional design. The results support the expectations, showing that people high in SDO and RWA were more likely to hold the belief that asylum seekers are making false claims and to perceive that the latter pose a threat to the in-group, which in turn increased support for both of restrictive policies. Findings suggest that conservative ideologies can positively affect citizens' support for restrictive asylum seeker policies based on both rejection and restricted reception by supplying ideological justification for not accommodating them in the host society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined perceptions of those without children in a pre-registered study. Women who made a conscious decision not to have children (i.e., childfree) and women without children for unknown reasons were evaluated more negatively than mothers and those unable to have children (i.e., childless). Few differences were observed in evaluations of male targets as a function of parental status. Although we expected gender differences whereby childfree women would be evaluated more negatively than childfree men, this was not observed. Evaluations also did not vary as a function of perceiver gender. Those higher in social dominance orientation had more negative evaluations of childfree and childless women operating through ascription to traditional gender roles. The same pattern existed for male targets but was no longer supported when statistically controlling for singlism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intergroup contact reduces prejudice against a variety of social outgroups and seems to be particularly effective at reducing prejudice in individuals most prone to it—those high in right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO). The present study examines the moderating roles of RWA and SDO in the contact-prejudice relationship, targeting dissident, dangerous, and derogated outgroups: lesbians and gay men, people with schizophrenia, and Indigenous Australians, respectively. In total, 234 participants self-reported contact and prejudice against these outgroups and completed RWA and SDO scales. Contact predicted less prejudice against lesbians and gay men and Indigenous Australians in participants high in RWA and participants high in SDO. However, contact only predicted less prejudice against people with schizophrenia in participants low in RWA or SDO. The results suggest that the ability for intergroup contact to reduce prejudice in prejudice-prone individuals may depend on the outgroup targeted, specifically the threat they pose and the level of prejudice held against them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the connection between moral exclusion of outgroups and on the one hand, right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), and social dominance orientation (SDO) on the other. We assumed that both RWA and SDO would increase the tendency to place other groups out of the scope of justice. However, we also tested whether negative stereotypes about an outgroup's threatening and norm-violating misbehavior would serve as a justification for moral exclusion. These assumptions were tested in connection with Roma, Jewish, and Muslim people as target groups in the Hungarian context (N = 441). In line with our hypotheses, we found that both RWA and SDO had an indirect effect on moral exclusion mediated by negative stereotypes about the particular target group. Our findings suggested that negative stereotypes were more important legitimizing factors for RWA than for SDO. Our results highlight the benefits of interpreting the process of moral exclusion as an outcome of motivated social cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tests the hypothesis that support for limits on the admission of Asian students into universities is motivated by people’s social motivation—namely, the desire to maintain the status hierarchy. Study 1 found that, among participants who evaluated a proposed limit to the number of Asian applicants admitted to universities, social dominance orientation (SDO) was positively related to policy support. Conversely, among participants who evaluated a proposed limit on White admits, SDO was negatively related to policy support. Study 2 found that the perceived threat of the group getting admitted at high rates explained differential support of policies that seek to limit group-specific admissions. In all, these findings suggest that attitudes toward changes in campus demographics may be rooted in a desire to maintain the status hierarchy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to explore whether emotional dominance can also account for choice deferral. This research manipulated emotional dominance through the difference in attractiveness among current alternatives in Experiment 1 and the readability of fonts for describing current options in Experiment 2, to investigate the role of dominance in choice deferral. The results revealed that increasingly submissive decision environments were related to more choice of deferral options. Mediation analyses indicated that dominance could mediate the effects of experimental manipulations on choice deferral, and that the actual choice of a deferral option was associated with more increase in dominance of retrospective emotion. The results indicate that dominance plays an important role in choice deferral and that choosing to defer can minimize the explicit confrontation of being out of control. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Judging others' power facilitates successful social interaction. Both gender and body posture have been shown to influence judgments of another's power. However, little is known about how these two cues interact when they conflict or how they influence early processing. The present study investigated this question during very early processing of power-related words using event-related potentials (ERPs). Participants viewed images of women and men in dominant and submissive postures that were quickly followed by dominant or submissive words. Gender and posture both modulated neural responses in the N2 latency range to dominant words, but for submissive words they had little impact. Thus, in the context of dual-processing theories of person perception, information extracted from both behavior (i.e., posture) and from category membership (i.e., gender) are recruited side-by-side to impact word processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigated the relationship among perception of ingroup threats (realistic and symbolic), conservative ideologies (social dominance orientation [SDO] and right-wing authoritarianism [RWA]), and prejudice against immigrants. Data were collected with a cross-sectional design in two samples: non-student Italian adults (n = 223) and healthcare professionals (n = 679). Results were similar in both samples and indicated that symbolic and realistic threats, as well as SDO and RWA, positively and significantly predicted anti-immigrant prejudice. Moreover, the model considering SDO and RWA as mediators of threats’ effects on prejudice showed a better fit than the model in which ingroup threats mediated the effects of SDO and RWA on prejudice against immigrants. Accordingly, SDO and RWA partially mediated the effect of both symbolic and realistic threats, which maintained a significant effect on prejudice against immigrants, however. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

To probe the inconsistent link between education and attitude change toward minority social groups, we conducted a field study that focused on audience characteristics and education about lesbian, gay, and transgender (LGT) targets. Participants enrolled in a sexuality course were compared to those in a neurology course, both taught by the same professor. Multiple regression analyses predicted attitude change toward LGT targets from social dominance orientation (SDO), right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), ratings of professor’s characteristics, SDO by course interaction, and RWA by course interaction. Only the SDO by course interaction significantly predicted attitude change. Simple slopes analyses indicated that high-SDO participants in the sexuality course showed the most positive attitude change. These findings suggest that education may reduce prejudice for certain audience characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Fear of negative evaluation (FNE), state anxiety (SA), and dominance have consequences for social functioning. The present study assessed how FNE, SA, and a target’s dominance-relevant label are related to perceptions of personality. One hundred seventy-eight participants who scored high or low on FNE underwent a laboratory manipulation of SA, viewed a photograph of a target with a high or low dominance-relevant label, and rated the target on the Big Five personality traits and dominance. FNE and SA were unrelated to perceptions, but the high-dominance label was associated with perceptions of higher dominance, conscientiousness, and openness. In conclusion, judges did use information about others when making initial judgments of personality, but these judgments were not impacted by trait or state psychological distress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the Spatial Agency Bias (SAB), more agentic groups (men) are envisioned to the left of less agentic groups (women). This research investigated the role of social status in shaping the spatial representation of gender couples. Participants were presented pairs consisting of one male and one female target who confirmed gender stereotypes. The status of the targets in each pair was systematically varied (high-status vs. low-status job). Participants chose the target order (female/male vs. male/female) they preferred. In line with gender-status expectations (male: high-status, female: low-status), a male in a high-status job led to a spatial arrangement that favored the male/female order, regardless of the status of the female target. The female/male order was favored only when the female had a high-status job and the male a low-status job. No SAB occurred for pairs in which both targets displayed low-status jobs. The implications of status for the SAB are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study tested the pathways between personality, social worldviews, and ideology, predicted by the Dual Process Model (DPM) of ideology and prejudice. These paths were tested using a full cross-lagged panel design administered to a New Zealand community sample in early 2008 (before the effects of the global financial crisis reached New Zealand) and again in 2009 (when the crisis was near its peak;n = 247). As hypothesized, low openness to experience predicted residualized change in dangerous worldview, which in turn predicted right-wing authoritarianism (RWA). Low agreeableness predicted competitive worldview, which in turn predicted social dominance orientation (SDO). RWA and SDO also exerted unexpected reciprocal effects on worldviews. This study provides the most comprehensive longitudinal test of the DPM to date, and was conducted during a period of systemic instability when the causal effects predicted by the DPM should be, and were, readily apparent. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Among 342 white college students, we examined the effects of social dominance orientation (SDO), right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), and racial color-blindness on modern racism attitudes. Structural equation modeling was used to test the indirect effects of SDO and RWA on modern racism attitudes through color-blind racial attitudes. We found strong indirect effects of SDO and RWA on modern racism through racial color-blindness. We did not find support for an alternative model, in which we tested racial color-blindness as a moderator of the effects of SDO and RWA on modern racism. Findings suggest that highly dominant and authoritarian white students endorse color-blind racial attitudes, although likely for different reasons. In turn, this predicts their modern racism attitudes. These findings indicate racial color-blindness is important to address as part of anti-racism education. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Based on Self-Determination Theory, the role of parental extrinsic versus intrinsic (E / I) goal promotion for adolescent ethnic prejudice and the mechanisms underlying this effect were examined in a sample of adolescents and their parents. Results indicate that paternal and maternal E / I goal promotion had a significantly positive effect on ethnic prejudice. This effect could be accounted for by differences in adolescent right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO). In addition, differences in adolescent E / I goal pursuit fully mediated the effects of parental E / I goal promotion on RWA and SDO. Finally, the effects of adolescent E / I goal pursuits on ethnic prejudice were fully mediated by RWA and SDO. Implications of these findings will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychologists know a lot about the political and ideological correlates of people scoring high on authoritarianism. However, psychologists have less knowledge about such people's everyday pursuits. In the present study, the authors examined authoritarian interest in film, live events, music, and reading. A predictable pattern of correlates emerged. For example, authoritarians enjoyed activities in which physical conflict was prominent, whereas authoritarians tended not to like entertainment that offered introspection. In general, the present results were consistent across 2 samples (N = 120, N = 90). Although men and women had significantly different preferences on over 0.5 of the leisure pursuits (e.g., men enjoyed action films more than did women), there were no significant gender differences in the magnitudes of correlates with authoritarianism. In general, leisure interests appeared to be partly manifestations or expressions of authoritarian tendencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT. Although ninny social psychological researchers have tried to identify the antecedents of unethical or immoral behavior, investigators have little considered the content of ethical beliefs that associate with important personality variables such as authoritarianism (B. Altemeyer, 1981, 1996) and social dominance orientation (SDO; J. Sidanius, 1993). Previous studies suggest that authoritarianism is associated with the rejection of relativistic standards for moral actions and--to a lesser extent--the idealistic belief that moral actions should not harm others (J. W. McHoskey, 1996). In the present study, 160 New Zealand University students completed measures of SDO (J. Sidanius), Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA, B. Altemeyer, 1981), and two subscales of ethical ideology: Relativism mad Idealism (D. R. Forsyth, 198/)). As expected, SDO showed a negative relationship with Idealism, a belief that actions should not harm others. But, contrary to expectations, SDO showed no consistent association with relativism, a belief that the moralities of actions are not comparable. On the basis of those findings, people with high SDO might be described as "ruthless" in their pursuit of desirable goals and are indifferent about whether the morality of different actions can be compared or even matter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT. Using a random sample (N = 405) of White and Latino Americans from Los Angeles County, the authors explored whether there is an asymmetrical relationship between U.S. patriotism and two different dimensions of social dominance orientation: group antiegalitarianism and group dominance. Although there was no evidence of asymmetry in the relationship between U.S. patriotism and group antiegalitarianism, there was evidence of consistent asymmetry in the relationship between U.S. patriotism and group dominance. Among Whites (the dominant North American ethnic group) and depending on demographic variables such as age, education, income, and gender, the greater the respondents' tendency to subordinate "inferior groups," the greater their level of U.S. patriotism. In contrast, among Latino Americans (the major subordinate group in Southern California), the opposite trend was found. Here, higher levels of group dominance orientation were associated with lower levels of U.S. patriotism. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The predictability of engaged Arab men's perceptions of abusive husbands was tested. The analysis was based on variables reflecting three theoretical perspectives: male dominance, intergenerational social learning, and interpersonal skills deficit. The data were derived from a standardized measurement package completed by 434 Arab men in Israel. The results revealed that a combination of predictors from disparate frameworks best explained the variance in the different criterion variables of the study. Lack of skills for establishing positive communication with one's fiancée, traditional and nonegalitarian expectations of marriage, and experience with or witnessing violence in the family of origin best explained the variance in the belief that abusive husbands should not be held responsible for their behavior. The combination of the first two predictors and negative attitudes toward women best explained the variance in the view of the respondents that abusive husbands should not be punished for their violent behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the psychometric properties and correlates of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) Scale using a sample of white South African students. Although item analysis has often been used to assess the degree to which a scale is unidimensional, this procedure is highly unsatisfactory and can lead to extremely deceptive results. For example, an item analysis would suggest unidimensionality whenever two or more approximately equal item subsets comprising independent factors are contained within a single scale (Mclver & Carmines, 1981, pp. 30-31). For this reason, it has been recommended that factor analysis be used to ascertain whether scales are adequately unidimensional before item analyses are conducted to assess reliability. Overall, the RWA Scale was adequately unidirnensional and highly reliable. The evidence for the RWA Scale's construct validity was impressive, with the validity coefficients not merely highly statistically significant, but also indicating powerful effects in all cases. The strong correlation between the RWA Scale and prejudice in South Africa suggests that psychological factors are no less important in determining preju- dice in very highly prejudiced settings such as South Africa, where there seem to be powerful normative conformity pressures to hold prejudiced attitudes, than they are in other settings.

This article compares symbolic racism and social dominance theories by reanalysis of data from a national probability sample of 234 White Americans and by using observed-variables, structural equation models. Criticism of the symbolic racism (SR) theory have been both conceptual and theoretical. One conceptual criticism questions the necessity of the concept of symbolic racism itself. Some empirical evidence indicates that what is being called symbolic racism is nothing more than old-fashioned racism elicited through less offensively worded questionnaire items. A conceptual view criticizes the symbolic racism literature for containing a great deal of conceptual confusion regarding the meaning of central concepts and the casual interconnections among these concepts. A theoretical criticism of SR theory comes from the group-conflict school. SR theory maintains that certain issues of public policy are not driven by rational self-interest but by symbolic attitudes. Racial attitudes and political ideology do determine one's position on certain racially relevant issues of public policy.

The article focuses on the trait patterns of middle managers in the United States into six personality types. The article uses the cluster analysis to classify following six personality types--dominance, capacity for status, self-acceptance, tolerance, achievement-independence and intellectual efficiency. The 176 participants were employed at 24 plants located throughout the mid- western and western United States. Seventeen of the plants manufactured glass containers, 3 plants manufactured consumer and technical products, 2 plants made glass molds, and 2 plants made packaging materials. Results provide personality descriptions of six types of middle managers and present the differences in their biographical characteristics, job functions, and managerial styles. These descriptions appear to be generally useful for understanding the personalities of middle managers and for making organizational decisions about them. It provides a Gas is for describing American middle managers in terms of personality, background, and work characteristics. The personality types with poorer leadership traits had weaker backgrounds, spent less time on and attached less importance to critical middle-management work activities, and had less effective management styles. The better leadership types were most different in educational level, physical condition, work performance, emphasis on coordinating, decisiveness, cooperation, and intellectual efficiency.

Relationships between acceptance of authority (both attitudinal and behavioral) as measured by modified versions of Rigby's (1982) General Attitude towards Institutional Authority Scale and Rigby's (1984a) Authority Behavior Inventory, and evaluations of authority figures, nonauthority figures, generalized others and self, were examined using questionnaire results from 68 social work students. The specificity of the acceptance of authority measures was supported: Whereas pro-authority subjects tended to rate the selected authority figures more highly than did other subjects, they did not rate nonauthority figures higher. In addition, contrary to expectations suggested by the theory of classical authoritarianism, pro-authority subjects were not comparatively low in respect for nonauthority figures, nor did they show low acceptance of self and others, as assessed by modified versions of Berger's measures of self-acceptance and acceptance of others (Shaw and Wright, 1967). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social psychologists have often used the technique of forming hierarcities in small groups by taking all the possible dyadic combinations of persons in a group and establishing dominance in each dyad. These dyad dominance ranks are then used as the basis for generalizing to dominance rankings when the people are brought together in one large group. This study addressed the methodological problem that occurs when both dyadic subjects are not strangers to the procedures and each other. Type 1 dyadic encounters, in which both subjects were strangers to each other and the procedures, yielded equal probabilities of either dominating. Type 3 dyadic encounters, in which both subjects were strangers to each other but had been in one previous dyad and, therefore, were familiar with the laboratory and the procedures, also yielded equal probabilities of either dominating. In Type 2 dyadic encounters, in which one person had been in a dyad already and the other had not, however, the experienced subject was more likely to dominate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental threat has been suggested as one of the major causes of high authoritarianism. One aspect of the authoritarian personality is the maintenance of superstition, defined as the belief in “mystical or fantastic external determinants of the individual's fate.” The focus of research on parapsychological phenomena in essence seems to satisfy this definition. Consequently, it was hypothesized that the annual percentage of parapsychological contributions to the psychological literature (a) is correlated positively with the unemployment rate, (b) is correlated negatively with the disposable per capita income in constant dollars, and (c) is correlated positively with the subjective “annual threat weightings” of historians (n = 3) and social critics (n = 1). Analyses were based on the years 1929-75. All hypotheses were supported. Hierarchical stepwise regression indicated that the four predictors accounted for 41% of the variance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two scales were devised to measure not only attitude to authority but also rebellious or submissive behavior tendency among schoolchildren in Grades 7 to 11. Each of the two scales also had two subscales concerning teachers and parents. High (.86 and .84) reliabilities were demonstrated on a sample of 120 pupils drawn from several schools in the Wollongong area of Australia. Contrary to findings among adults, attitude and behavior among children were found to be highly correlated (.65). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eysenck's claim that Psychoticism (P) explains Tough-mindedness is examined. It is pointed out that authoritarianism is said by Eysenck to be one type of tough-mindedness. The P and F scales should therefore correlate positively. In a random postal survey of New South Wales (N = 172), the P scale, a balanced F scale, and the Ray Directiveness scale were administered. The F scale was found to correlate significantly negatively with the P scale. Authoritarian personality as measured by the Directiveness scale did however correlate positively with P. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex-linked lexical forms were presented in writing to 41 female and 21 male white, middle class, adult Ss who were attending a PTA meeting. Ss were asked to associate the forms with 10 attributes represented by adjective scales, each scale having a male and a female pole. It was found that female and male language evoked associations of stereotypic female and male traits respectively. Both men and women harbored similar associations for a given language form. If language is actually produced by the two sexes in accord with peoples' beliefs about the sex appropriateness of certain linguistic forms, then the two sexes as speakers, through their respective gender-based linguistic varieties (their gender-dialects), may be eliciting perceptions of dominance or subordination from their listeners, thus perpetuating their societally defined roles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present investigation an attempt was made to determine the marriage-role attitudes of a group of Japanese college students and to evaluate these attitudes in the light of those found in comparable Japanese-American and Caucasian-American groups. Ss were drawn from introductory psychology courses at the University of Hawaii, Nara Gakugei University, and Yokohama National University. The research instrument was a 28-item scale measuring male-dominant and equalitarian attitudes toward marriage. Japanese-American males proved to be notably high in male dominance, while Japanese females were similarly high in equalitarianism. No significant difference was found in the marriage-role attitudes of male and female Caucasian Americans, but the Japanese and the Japanese-American groups both showed significant sex differences, the males being more male dominant and the females more equalitarian in attitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the problem of assessing the relative effects of different trait-cues on inferences about persons. The term cue-dominance is introduced to refer to the relative strength of a cue-trait in affecting inference processes. Subjects were then divided into three equal-sized groups of high, medium, and low sociability. The three groups presented with the unsociable description of a stimulus person were found to attribute fewer desirable traits to him the higher their own sociability, but the three groups presented with the sociable description did not vary in the number of desirable traits attributed. Measurement of cue-dominance by the number of desirable traits attributed to the stimulus person is only one possible method of evaluating strength of cues. Trait-cues in the stimulus person that correspond to dominant traits of the perceiver have more effect on the inference process than do trait-cues corresponding to traits not characteristic of the perceiver.

This paper investigates certain personality characteristics that are expected to have a bearing on the way in which husbands and wives divide between themselves the task and social emotional actions in decision making. Three personality dimensions were hypothesized to have a relationship to spousal roles in decision making: Dominance, persistence, and self-confidence. Five of the six correlations ranged between .06 and .25, while dominance and persistence among husbands correlated--.42. The way in which the spouses behaved in decision making was analyzed according to Bales' system of Interaction Process Analysis. Twenty-five married student couples constituted a purposively selective sample for this phase of the pilot decision making study. Each couple was asked to assume that they had received a gift of $300 with the stipulation that none of it could be saved nor could any of it be used for items they had previously decided to purchase. When the husband was dominant, the wife was less likely to out-talk her husband. She was also less likely to perform more of the problem solving attempts. Among females, just as among males, there was little relationship between persistence and the relative performance of task oriented actions. Self-confident males were less likely to have more influence than their wives and were about as likely as other males to have equal influence.

This paper investigates the effect of the hierarchical position of an individual's group on his or her relations with the various groups in the hierarchy and whether the effect is similar in different hierarchies. Four of the most familiar types of aspiration have been chosen: wishes, maximum expectations, minimum expectations and actual expectations. There are also restraints that serve to keep positive relations close to the membership group. Furthermore, not only may entry into a higher group be difficult, but departure from the membership group may be checked by the insistence of fellow-members on loyalty. Actual expectations, if directed above the membership group at all, are likely to focus on the proximate group. Of course, the nearer the membership group is to the bottom of the hierarchy, the lower the degree to which the need is from complete fulfillment. Since satisfaction is apparently greater in high-level groups than in low-level groups, high-level people should be more inclined to direct negative relations to groups beneath the membership group. Because of its nature, a hierarchy of abstract classes can readily be constructed artificially and mobility can be controlled and manipulated with relative ease.

The predictive validity of the Bernreuter Personality Inventory measure of dominance-submission was examined by comparing its results with the dominance patterns observed in experimental small group situations using married couples. Out of 40 couples, the Bernreuter scale predicted the observed dominance pattern in only 23, which was not significantly different from chance. Moreover, the scale predicted least successfully when the scores of the husband and wife differed most from each other. The Bernreuter scale thus does not appear to be a valid measure of dominance-submission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A battery of tests, including the three University of California Public Opinion scales, the Chave Attitude toward the Church scale, and a new religious beliefs scale, was given to approximately 600 subjects. Although it was given to some church groups it was administered predominantly to college and university students, which may explain the fact that the extreme church groups obtained scores of over five standard deviations from the average, although the average was quite close to the theoretical neutral point. The new scale has, however, a reliability of .89 and there was an average item correlation with total score of .63. This would appear to justify its use in the research reported on. Correlation of .70 with the Chave scale would appear to give it reasonable validity, although the correlation of .10 with the Josey scale throws some doubt on it. Correlations with the UC scale were .37 for Ethnocentrism and .23 with Political-Economic Conservatism-too low to be of much value. The correlation of .53 with the F (authoritarian) scale would appear somewhat more significant. Item analysis and inspection of detailed response of high and low scorers showed a distinct tendency of the high scorers to select concrete and literal items and to reject more philosophical ones, and for the more literal and concrete items to be more consistently chosen. This produced the hypothesis that the high scorers on the religious scale tended to be literalistic, concrete, even "materialistic" in their religious orientation-fitting something of the picture described as "pedantic" or "rigid," and thus conforming to the authoritarian personality as rigid, dogmatic, inflexible, conforming. This research, together with a good deal other recently inspired by the UC study, points the way to a distinct personality syndrome but it is hard to give coherence to the material up to now available. Further research is distinctly in order, both to more clearly delineate this personality syndrome and to describe its behavior in the more distinctly religious realm. More adequate instruments are needed as well as a better distributed sample of the population. This research will have been worth while if it stimulates further work along this line. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The behavior of 41 patients in seven therapy groups was assessed by means of a checksheet which was then used to determine likeness or difference among all the patients and these results studied by means of an inverse factor analysis. Three factors were extracted. The greatest amount of variation among patients was accounted for by a bi-polar factor of activity level, aggressiveness, and dominance. The remaining two factors are somewhat related and of questionable reliability and seemed to be involved with sensitivity and tendency towards being an "ideal patient." These results seem to indicate that patients in therapy groups may well manifest different roles which vary along the dimensions of the three factors found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the dominance or self-esteem syndrome in animals and in humans specially in women. It was found, in the preliminary studies with monkeys and apes, that there was a remarkably close relationship between dominance and sexuality, so close indeed that one is now inclined to consider sexuality as a sub-pattern in the total dominance syndrome in these animals. This article tends to indicate that sexual attitudes and behavior are as much or more truly and closely functions of personality and social and cultural relationships than of sheer biological endowment. Dominance-feeling or self-esteem, is an evaluation of the self; operationally defined, it is what the subject says about herself in an intensive interview after a good rapport has been established. Dominance status is a social relationship; it is an expression of social position with respect to another person, and is always relative to this other person. A person is in dominance-status with respect to another when he feels stronger, more adequate, superior or dominates this other person either overtly in behavior or implicitly in feeling.

The article outlines a hypothesis concerning the correlation between quality or type of dominance to be found in various families of infra-human primates, and the social behavior and group organization to be found in these families. The discussion of the group behavior of infra-human primates and its correlation with dominance-quality must confine itself largely to the platyrrhine and catarrhine groups, since very little that is useful for the present purpose has been published for the anthropoid ape. Different kinds or qualities of dominance behavior are demonstrable in the three main families of infra-human primates that have been studied; different kinds of social behavior and group organization may be found in the two families, for which there is adequate data; these differences are correlated. It would be possible to describe in great detail all the differences that exist, but so organized are these differences that it is possible to describe them by their general character. One may say that dominance in the chimpanzee is mostly of a friendly kind, that dominance in the macaque is usually brutal in nature, and that dominance in the cebus is in the first place tenuous and in the second place relatively non-contactual.

The article presents a report of results obtained in a clinical-experimental research on the interrelations between dominance feeling and various other attributes of personality, social behavior, and sexual behavior. High dominance feeling empirically involves good self-confidence, self- assurance, high evaluation of the self, feelings of general capability or superiority, and lack of shyness, timidity, self-consciousness, or embarrassment. One of the purposes motivating this research and its particular methods derives from the author's dissatisfaction with several psychoanalytic beliefs. The research was designed therefore so as to eschew interpretation, to use lay concepts, to use "normal" subjects, and to ignore the concept of the unconscious. The main method used in the research was the "intensive interviewing," or "personality investigation by conversational probing. In the second place, the investigator subordinated objectively and standardized procedure to the necessities of the separate situations presented by each individual subject.

In this article the author argues that for some odd reason there seems to be a lack of studies in the field of social psychology of the commonly recognized intimate social relationship that might be called dominating-dominated behavior. This article is offered as a small and very imperfect sample of such needed studies. The material was secured from two sections of women college students in social psychology. They were asked to write out a description of a social relationship known first-hand, which was featured by a dominating person. The effects of dominating behavior are classified in the analytical table. The groupings therein are undoubtedly open to criticism and a larger number of cases would produce more varieties. The number of each type is shown in the form. Combining these types into two general classifications shows that the effects of domination were considered negative in 26 cases, positive in 13. It seems questionable whether many of the 13 cases showing positive effects should really be considered cases of dominating-dominated behavior, perhaps more properly there were cases of good leadership or prestige. Probably a good definition to delimit these concepts is needed.

The article attempts to develop a new scale for scoring the Bernreuter Personality Inventory. Bernreuter Inventory measures four personality traits designated Neurotic Tendency, Self-Sufficiency, Introversion-Extraversion, and Dominance-Submission. In this study, the author made an item analysis of the Bernreuter Inventory blanks of 310 freshmen falling into the highest and lowest quartiles of their group in respect to scholarship. In the course of this analysis it was noted that certain individuals tended to mark the response to each item that was most characteristic of the group as a whole, while other persons showed a rather consistent tendency to choose the less popular responses. This fact suggested the possibility that a scoring key with each response weighted according to the frequency with which it was chosen might yield scores of some significance. Since no item of the Inventory differentiated markedly between the superior and inferior students, it was assumed that both groups were representative of the total population from which they had been selected.

The article examines the time function in the experimental formation of social hierarchies of different sizes in "Gallus domesticus." The author informed that in this study, five groups of animals, Gallus domesticus, consisting respectively of two, three, four, five, and six individuals each, were isolated at eight weeks of age and tested weekly for the formation of straight line dominance. The ages at which such hierarchies were completed in each group were found to be 15, 19, 22, 26, and 32 weeks respectively. According to the author, the description of a single isolated social hierarchy as a system of mutually dependent variables has already been accomplished for "Gallus domesticus," and that description has been stated in terms of the general equation y = m(p + q + r + s + t) + C. This equation was derived from multiple simultaneous coordinates, and the successive steps in the derivation consisted of certain classical operations, which occurred in a certain definite order of succession.

The article presents information on the experimental measurement of a social hierarchy in Gallus Domesticus. The experiment is related to the identification and inferential measurement of social reflexes by the means of social discrimination. The first paper in this preliminary series of experiments narrates the general story of the method of attack on the time and space measurement of social phenomena. The article also presents a brief abstract of the findings of that paper. In the experiment, six young roosters were arranged in a hierarchy of dominance, the order being determined by the number of individuals in the group that each rooster is able to defeat in physical combat. This was followed by the application of the simple measurements of time and space. It was pointed out that this method of measurement and analysis was initiated as a result of reflecting on the discussion of conditions in the social sciences by other psychologists. Social discrimination in Gallus domesticus is identified as it is measured in the social discrimination cage. When the discriminations are plotted against mass, there is no indication that the discriminations are any more than chance.

The article examines social attitudes among undergraduates. Social dominance orientation (SDO) acts as a motivation that underpins racial, class and gender inequalities and that has been found useful in predicting racist and sexist attitudes. Respondents were 533 undergraduates who volunteered for the study. Of the total, 136 attended an Australian university and were tested during 1996. An additional 165 respondents attended a South African university and were testing during August 1997. Of these, 112 identified themselves as white and 53 identified themselves as black. The third sample comprised 232 students at an all-black university in the southeastern U.S. They completed the 14-item SDO measure. Coefficient alphas for the scale were .85 for the Australians, .76 for the black South Africans, .85 for the white South Africans and .76 for the African Americans. That the white South African respondents scored highest on SDO is in line with earlier results that showed them to be authoritarian, to be prejudiced and to believe in a just world. Although all groups scored below the midpoint of the scale, it would seem that the present white South African students were less likely than the other student groups to completely endorse full social and economic equality, notwithstanding the major political changes that South Africans have undertaken in recent years.

This article investigates complementarity in mate selection with respect to communication initiation, social confidence, and social dominance. In the present study the author investigated complementarily in mate selection with respect to three characteristics; communication initiation, social confidence, and social dominance. Because these characteristics are integral to everyday socializing, the author thought they would provide a good assessment of the complementarily the author hypothesized to be present in marital relationships. Twenty-eight married couples were recruited from the suburbs of Oxford, England and from nearby villages by door-to-door solicitation. The mean age for the men was 47 years and for the women, 42 years. The mean length of time the couples had been married was 20 years. The measure was a questionnaire that contained nine statements. Both partners in each couple were instructed to complete the questionnaire independently by indicating their reactions to each statement on a Likert-type scale that ranged from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The subjects also indicated their age and the number of years they had been married.