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The present investigation was concerned with whether or not the conformity of labor newspapers corresponds to a J-curve with respect to the conflict between the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations. An analysis of 1,329 issues of 177 labor newspapers, for September, October, and November, 1939, was made in terms of four rather well defined positions on a telic continuum. Position 1 consisted of use of material in the newspaper from the national organization, with the addition of local comment derogatory of the rival organization and/or its leaders. Position 2 consisted simply of use of materials from the press services of the national organization. Position 3 was strict neutrality. Position 4 was represented by recommendations of cooperation between the two groups. Comparisons were also made between: local labor papers and those published by national unions; papers of A.F.L. affiliates and of C.I.O. affiliates; papers of A.F.L. nationals and of C.I.O. nationals; papers of A.F.L. locals and of C.I.O. locals; papers of C.I.O. nationals and of C.I.O. locals; papers of A.F.L. nationals and of A.F.L. locals; and papers of local labor organizations in a "nonconflict" situation and those in a "conflict" situation. In addition, comparisons were made between the labor organizations in terms of the mean value of all issues of each newspaper published by the organization. No J-curves were found in any of the situations studied. This means that there were no curves of institutional conformity to the philosophy of the national group. The fact that Position 3 was the mode in practically all cases would seem to indicate the inertia of large numbers of members in the national federations with respect to the philosophy of the national organization. Although no J curves were obtained, the J-curve analysis was valuable in showing that neither of two outstanding views is correct as to the causes of the division between the two national labor organizations, (a) The theory of institutional conflict between industrial unionism (C.I.O.) and craft unionism (A.F.L.) is not supported by the non-institutional conformity of the labor he papers, (b) Neither is the theory of "power politics" upheld, that the differences between the national organizations are between leaders only, with the rank and file as pawns; this is shown by the size of the percentages on Position 4. This does not mean that these two sets of factors are not important, but simply that neither of them is a complete explanation of the division between the two organizations. As a whole, the distributions indicate that the differences between the A.F.L. and the C.I.O. are so complex in nature as to have prevented them from becoming institutionalized. Institutional conformity might have been demonstrated, of course, had the continuum been in terms of community mores rather than in terms of rivalry with the other labor organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experiment compared a weighted-average model from information integration theory with McGuire's inoculation theory as explanations of the "paper tiger" effect. Ss were 24 male and 24 female American college students. Procedure and design were similar to that used by McGuire, and his messages were used verbatim. Each S indicated his attitude on each of four health issues and also made direct estimates of the weight and scale value of each piece of information upon his attitude. An apparent paper tiger effect was observed for some issues, but the opposite effect was observed for other issues. The predictions of the averaging model were quite good in six of eight cases. The two discrepancies seemed to reflect an underestimation of the importance of attacking message. Overall, the results were interpreted as supportive of the informational interpretation. No need was found for the motivational concepts of belief threat and refutational practice used in inoculation theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this first of a series of four papers on the effects of acculturation on personality and attitudes, students in four Uganda secondary schools, chosen to represent four levels of acculturation, were tested on sentence completion, thematic apperception and figure-drawing tests, in regard to their political awareness and attitudes toward authority figures, especially chiefs and Euro-peans. These 211 Ss in the Buganda province of Uganda were then compared with 144 Ss in the North Nyanza province of Kenya who were assumed to be less acculturated. The findings support the hypothesis that the more acculturated more frequently than the less acculturated feel hostile toward authority figures. The findings suggested further that the more acculturated more frequently than the less acculturated tended to perceive authority figures as punitive, but were mixed in their opinions about authority. In comparison with the less acculturated Kenya sample, the Uganda sample were more aware politically, more actively discontent with the political status quo and more nationalistic in their identification. Non-monotonic relationships with degree of acculturation were found in regard to readiness to identify with the European and covert tendency to view the European as dominant The significance of these findings will be discussed in the fourth paper of this series. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To better understand the consistency of people’s proenvironmental intentions and behaviors, we set out to examine two sets of research questions. First, do people perform (1) different types of proenvironmental behaviors consistently, and (2) the same proenvironmental behavior consistently across settings? Second, are there consistent predictors of proenvironmental behavioral intentions across behavior and setting type? Participants reported four recycling and conservation behaviors across three settings, revealing significant variability in rates of behaviors across settings. Prior behavior, attitudes toward the behavior, and importance of the behaviour consistently predicted proenvironmental intentions. However, perceived behavioral control tended to predict intentions to perform proenvironmental behavior outside the home. Future research aimed at understanding and influencing different proenvironmental behaviors should carefully consider how settings affect intentions and behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peabody has shown that of authoritarianism items agreed to in the original, twice as many are agreed to as are rejected in their reverse forms. This "double agreement" phenomenon argues for interpreting endorsement of authoritarianism items in terms of response sets rather than on the basis of the content of the item. in a previous paper, the present authors demonstrated that approval-dependent subjects double-agreed more often than less approval- dependent ones. Recently, however, Miklich reported a significant negative correlation between double agreement to Dogmatism items and approval dependence. The present paper presents two subsequent studies in an attempt to resolve the issue. These findings show (a) that a significant positive relationship existed between double agreement and approval dependence and (b) that high approval-need subjects viewed both original and reversed authoritarianism items as more ambiguous. It is suggested that differential perception of item ambiguity by these subjects mediated their tendency toward double agreement, and that certain features of the Miklich design may have minimized the effect of this variable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to study selectivity in mass-communication media as a function of one's stand on a controversial social issue: namely, the issue of Arab unity. The sample used in this study consisted of 260 undergraduate Arab students at the American University of Beirut. The subjects were given a questionnaire on Arab unity (1) on the basis of which their stand towards this issue was determined; also, subjects were asked to indicate their preferences for various newspapers and radio stations available in the Arab Middle East area. In general, the results demonstrate that subjects with an extreme stand on the issue of Arab unity (particularly those with an extreme negative stand) show high selectivity in the kinds of mass communication media to which they expose themselves, the selectivity being in the form of preferences for media (i.e., newspapers and radio stations) expressing points of view similar to their own. However, subjects with a moderate stand on the issue of Arab unity also showed behavior similar to that of the extreme anti-Arab unity subjects. This result raises questions as to the adequacy of the attitude- measuring technique that was employed in this and in similar previous studies in the assessment of "moderate" or "neutral" attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to study the implication of the hypothesis that the adoption of new or changed mode of technology depends primarily on the receptivity of the culture and its people rather than on the material and technical resources. Qualitative and quantitative data obtained seem to confirm the hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on boys' attitudes towards participation in the war effort. Boys have been playing a vital role in the World War II. They have collected paper and salvage, distributed leaflets and posters, run messages, spotted planes, worked on farms, and made themselves useful in countless other ways. This study aims to discover what boys and their leaders think of the war service jobs they are asked to do and what they both think of the way the jobs were done. The data were collected in three New York localities and one in New Jersey during September, 1942. These four communities represent different population sizes and densities: rural, urban plus rural, urban, and metropolitan. Many types of war activities were reported by the boys, but the following services listed in order of frequency of participation were most widely rendered. The boys were asked which of these war services they considered most important and why. Analysis has been made of the boys' ratings of the importance and fun of their war jobs and the reasons for these ratings.

This paper offers the generalizations that habituated attitudes are influential factors in determining the seriousness of the handicaps to successful adjustment, that the obstacles to such adjustment increase in difficulty as the nature of the attitude distributions move from the leptokurtic curve, through the normal, and platykurtic, to the balanced U-curve forms, and that the J-curve form imposes mild or extreme handicaps as one moves through a range of conflict situations from the average of the homogeneous group to opposing groups. The permeability of the barriers to successful adjustment is, also, related to the steepness of the slopes, which may vary within limits, for each of the four characteristic non-normal curves. The supporting argument is largely based upon the generalization that adjustment is relatively easy where the attitudes held conform to the average of the group in which conflicts arise, and that social skills adequate to meet conflict situations with success are most regularly found where these skills cover average situations. These generalizations on curve forms and slopes are applied to an analysis of the seriousness of adjustmental handicaps in the Lehigh sample and in the field of international relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results reported in this paper may be summarized briefly as follows: 1. In attitude toward self-reliance the present groups from the three home situations, the farm, the town, and the city, did not differ significantly from each other. Mothers and fathers also scored, on the average, essentially the same. The town mothers had the most favorable and the town fathers had the least favorable attitudes of any of the sub-groups. The groups, however, were too small for the differences to be statistically reliable. 2. In general, fathers who participated in this study did not differ from the mothers in attitude toward parental control versus freedom for high-school-age children. Definite differences did appear, however, between parents of the different home situations. Farm parents, in general, had the least favorable attitude and city parents had the most favorable attitude. This is explainable in part at least in the case of the mothers, in terms of differences in formal education and training. 3. Correlations between scores of the 50 parent pairs who returned completed sets of test papers were -.73 and -.66 for attitude toward self-reliance and attitude toward parental control respectively. These coefficients are exceptionally high, due, quite probably to the fact that this was not entirely an unselected group. These mothers made somewhat more favorable scores on both tests than the total mothers' group. 4. There was revealed a very slight tendency for attitude toward self-reliance in mothers to be associated with the development in their children of two sorts of self-reliance, i.e., independence of judgment in personal problems and resourcefulness in the group situation. There was also a suggestion of a relationship between this parental attitude in mothers and adequacy of personal adjustment, and also between this attitude in fathers and appreciation of home life in children. 5. Attitude toward adolescent freedom versus parental control in both fathers and mothers was very slightly associated with independence in personal matters in children. When the standard scores of each parent pair were averaged and correlated with "independence," the resulting coefficient was .30±.08. Since farm parents averaged lowest and city parents averaged highest in this attitude it was tentatively concluded that for the development of self-reliance, in the sense of independence in meeting personal problems, the city home situation was the most favorable and the farm home situation the least favorable of the three studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the number of experimental studies in primacy-recency has grown, it has become apparent that a variety of independent variables can influence the formation and change of attitudes and opinions. Although some attempts have been made to embrace several variables within the context of a single theoretical scheme, such efforts have not proved totally successful. One purpose of this paper is to introduce the rationale for such a system. The system introduced is based on the assumption that some variables, better than others, are able to induce a primacy or a recency effect. This assumption implies that variables can be classified on an order-effect hierarchy. Variables that exert a greater relative influence are thought to fall toward one end of the hierarchy; weaker variables, toward the other. To determine the placement of several pertinent variables, the effect on attitude formation of complementary variables (Lee, those known to produce the same effect) and competing variables (those known to produce opposite effects) was observed. Results suggest that strength of argument falls toward the "strong" end of an order-effect hierarchy and that variables such as delayed reinforcement, familiarity or unfamiliarity with the topic or content of a communication, and displacement of affect fall toward the "weak" end. Enculturated-response variables fall toward the center. A combination of complementary variables at the "strong" end of the order- effect hierarchy should have greater influence in producing a desired effect than a combination of complementary variables at the "weak" end of the hierarchy. In a combination of competitive variables, when one is from the strong end and the other from the weak end of the hierarchy, the effect should be in the direction implied by the stronger variable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports a laboratory study in which Ss observed another student either sign or refuse to sign a petition before being requested to sign the petition themselves. For half of the Ss, the other student (an assistant) was Negro, and for the other half, this individual was white. Both assistants signed or refused to sign the petition according to a prearranged sequence. Attitudes toward Negroes did not appear to play a strong role in this situation. In general, the results indicate that situational factors outweighed personal factors in determining S's reaction to the petition employed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a paper that reports the successful prediction of attitudes toward an international incident on the basis of scores on the California F scale. Some 20 minutes after leaving Miami, Florida, one morning late in July 1961, the pilot of a commercial airplane was forced at gunpoint to alter course and fly to Havana, Cuba, with his crew and 32 passengers. News media reported the hijacking and indicated that a fully armed U.S. Air Force plane had intercepted the hijacked plane and had followed it but had turned back as the commercial plane approached Havana. The evening reports of news media in Miami headlined this story and featured a call by Florida's Senator for U.S. Military forces to be sent into Havana to recover the airplane. At this point it was predicted that persons favorable to this view would score higher on the California F scale than those unfavorable to it. It was hypothesized that an individual's attitude toward authoritarianism would play an important role in shaping his reaction to the recommendation that military force be used.

Two explanations for the finding that bogus pipeline (BPL) assessment attenuates attitude change following induced compliance were investigated: (a) Ss misattribute dissonance arousal produced by the compliance to trepidation concerning the BPL; hence, no dissonance-reducing attitude change is necessary. (b) BPL assessment inhibits the misrepresentation of attitude statements for purposes of impression management. In an experiment with 153 male and female undergraduates, experimental Ss' attitudes were assessed on paper-and-pencil questionnaires after they had written counterattitudinal essays and some were led to believe that their attitudes would be reassessed on a BPL. Attitude change was eliminated by this BPL expectation even though Ss were unlikely to misattribute arousal to the BPL because they never came in contact with it. In further support of the impression-management explanation, attitude change was obtained when Ss believed they could misrepresent their attitudes on the paper-and-pencil questionnaires without being detected, either because the BPL was unreliable or because only questions irrelevant to their attitude statements would be reassessed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the major results of two questionnaire studies. One employed a dimensional analysis of an attitude and examined the value of the customary trait-list procedure for assessing a group stereotype of an attitude object. The other focused on a possible explanation for the Ss' choice of attributes under the trait-list procedure of the preceding study. In the first research, the attitudes toward Negroes of 65 students at Boston University were examined by means of a trait-list procedure and a variety of opinion-type questions that were designed to assess three conceived dimensions of attitude: C-opinions about characteristics of Negroes; OMP-allegations concerning the Ss' behavior toward Negroes; and SMP-opinions concerning how others should behave toward Negroes. Affect toward Negroes was assessed primarily by one opinion-type question. In the second study, 84 different students selected from the same trait list used in Experiment 1 the 10 attributes that were most important to them in interpersonal relations. They also indicated how they would regard a person who exhibited each of the 10 to a greater, equal, or lesser extent than most people. Then, the Ss gave their general impressions of an unidentified person characterized by eight attributes sometimes associated with Negroes and stated their personal regard for such an individual. Some of the findings were: 1. The conceived dimensions of attitude were markedly interrelated. But strength of feeling about one's opinions varied with the dimensions for the more favorable Ss: C > SMP > OMP. Although the less favorable Ss exhibited a similar ordinal trend of intensity, the differences among the dimensions were not reliable. The more favorable Ss exhibited significantly higher intensities than did the less favorable Ss on the C and SMP dimensions but not on the OMP one. 2. The Ss exhibited wide individual differences in their selections of five traits to characterize Negroes or as putative determiners of their attitudes toward them. Only approximately half of the total group subscribed to the two most popular selections; and much smaller percentages recorded the three, four, or five most frequently chosen ones. Also, the Ss evidenced a distinction between their selections of traits for description and as determiners of their thoughts and feelings about Negroes. Furthermore, attitude toward Negroes was not found to be related to the Ss' selections of traits. These results, as well as the finding that many characteristics not chosen by the Ss were ones on which they considered Negroes to be different from most other people, posed the problem of the basis for the particular selections made. 3. The attributes selected as descriptive of Negroes or as determiners of attitude toward them were rarely chosen as generally important in interpersonal situations; and the converse relationship was also found. 4. Although the characterization of the anonymous person evoked certain aspects of the commonly observed depiction of Negroes, few Ss spontaneously identified the person as a Negro or expressed dislike for him or rejected him from all interpersonal relations with themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the stereotypes of 100 college freshmen and 100 service holders of Orissa towards their own nationality namely "Indian" and four other out-groups namely American, British, Russian, and Chinese. All the subjects were the genuine inhabitants of the State of Orissa (India). A list of .60 adjectives was prepared after the necessary pre-test. The scores of the student and the service holder groups were kept separately for comparison. Attributes checked by at least 20 per cent of either group were selected for discussion in this paper. It was interesting to note that the subjects chose the largest number of derogatory traits for the Americans and the British whereas they chose only two bad traits out of 16 selected for the Russians, and not a single such trait for the Chinese for whom there were 15 good attributes. For the we-group they selected 18 good and 5 bad traits. The rank correlation between the two sets of scores (i.e., the scores of students and service holders) in relation to these five reference groups were highly significant. This means that though the samples belonged to two dissimilar populations yet they very closely agreed in choosing the attributes for these groups. The mean scores of the service holders were higher than those of the student group in all cases. The results might suggest that the traits which had been selected by the two groups were perhaps the commonly held attributes for these groups in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review has been presented of methods whereby attitudes can be studied in African communities in various stages of transition from tribal to `Western culture. The techniques of the directed interview, group discussion, TAT, incomplete sentences, and attitudes inventory were discussed. In the measurement of African attitudes the problems of rapport and of validity require particular attention. In addition to the usual validity problem whether verbalised attitudes are consistent with actual behaviour, there is the difficulty, in the case of African informants, of ensuring that the verbalised attitudes reflect their actual beliefs, ideas, and feelings. This is as much a matter of the correct choice of method and its skillful manipulation as of the establishment of proper rapport. Important ingredients of successful rapport are the careful timing of investigations with reference to events of cultural or local political significance; the use of the vernacular; the avoidance of pencil and paper except in the case of well-educated groups; the correct contacts and the employment of carefully selected and trained field-workers, preferably graduates in the social sciences. Validity can be determined in a number of ways, depending on the nature of the investigation and the method employed. Checks on facts implicit in the formation of an attitude; group differences in attitudes related to the particular role and status in society of the members of each group; changes in attitudes consistently related to social circumstances, have all been found useful as validity indicators. In work situations, job attitudes can also be related to assessments of work performance by supervisors, though conflicting role expectations in multi-racial societies may render merit rating criteria suspect. The problem of structuring TAT pictures in such a manner that attitudes relating to specific areas of interest will be evoked was discussed in some detail. Research into the development and functioning of perceptual habits in African cultures is necessary, both as a basis for designing TAT series, and for the interpretation of responses. Details were given of a promising inventory, designed to measure attitudes towards Western customs, ethical and legal concepts, and administration of justice. The inventory presents conversations between Africans who discuss the correct mode of conduct in a variety of situations. Each topic is discussed by five speakers whose reasons for acting or not acting in a particular manner are ranked by the subjects. Statistical treatment yields the relative strength of eight different attitudes in individuals and communities. It was shown that the reliability of the scale is high, .92 for the rank order in which the attitudes were placed, and from .85 to .51 for the internal consistency of six of the eight attitudes. Validity data were also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The morale inventory in this paper is composed of 11 miniature scales designed to measure attitudes related to various phases of morale. The scales are internally relatively homogeneous, and in spite of their brevity provide satisfactory retest reliabilities. The scales include items relating to personal morale of the emotional sort; confidence in the favorable outcome of the war; distrust of news sources; willingness to have civil liberties and social reforms suspended during the war; support of the war; and aggression toward the enemy, foreign-born in this country, our allies, our government and laws, and people in general. Intercorrelations of the scales indicate that morale is by no means a unitary variable. The correlations are generally low, although some interesting relationships come to light. Studies of a sample of the adult population of Minneapolis have shown that attitudes which would be considered solely on rational grounds to be favorable to the furtherance of the War effort do not always tend to go together. It has been found, for example, that favorable attitudes toward our allies and our government and laws are negatively correlated with expressions of aggression toward the enemy and toward aliens in this country. Aggressive attitudes, whether favorable or unfavorable to the war effort tend to be associated. Personal morale and optimism as to the course of the war appear to be relatively independent of other attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article authors comment on the use of attitudes of scales toward World War II in 1942. During the last week of May, 1942, 210 copies of Form A, Attitude toward War scale by L.L. Thurstone and R. Peterson were answered by students at the University of Arkansas. It was pointed out in the first article of that paper that the gross score could easily mask certain shifts in specific war attitudes that might occur. A more refined analysis might indicate some of these changes. One such method would be to compare the retest changes in percentage of students in each descriptive category of the scale. In effect, this is simply a rough analysis of the dispersion within the groups for the three successive years. Another type of analysis of these data has been made in terms of the number of different scale items checked by the subjects. The fourth method of analysis presents a more meaningful picture. In the previous study it was found that by analyzing the proportion of responses to the particular scale items themselves, certain rather specific changes in attitude status could be noted.

The article presents a qualitative study of punctuality. The author remarks that it is generally accepted that promptness is essential in industry, business, and the school, but this acceptance gives no assurance that the majority of people are punctual in these situations or that their behavior is consistent with their attitudes toward punctuality. The need for objectivity in social research cannot be over-emphasized. Certainly the most reliable data are obtained when observations are made in actual life-situations on individuals who are not aware of being observed. Such methods are far more time consuming, and much more difficult to administer than the much simpler pencil-and-paper procedures, but we are rapidly coming to appreciate that the objective methods are much more rewarding. Coincident with this trend toward objectivity, and somewhat supplementary to it, there is emphasis, particularly in certain quarters, on qualitative data, for example, subjective and more or less spontaneous utterances, comments, or descriptions, which are made by subjects to general situations suggested by rather broad questions.

The article focuses on an experimental study of some factors influencing the social attitudes of college students. The experiment was undertaken with the purpose of determining to what extent a semester's training in certain courses at the University of North Dakota has made measurable changes in the avowed attitudes of the students. For this purpose, the attitude toward the treatment of criminals was the one selected for study. Results indicate that the regular college courses are bringing about measurable changes in the student's avowed attitudes on social questions. As would be expected, the change is greater in those courses more closely related to the variable under investigation. In scoring the papers the author noticed that many students checked statements which seemed to be quite contradictory in their imports and which differed widely in their scale values. Individual differences in this respect were rather great. This raised the question as to whether or not any concomitants of this consistency or lack of it could be found.

The article presents information on a study which was designed first to compare the attitude of individuals not incarcerated toward the ten commandments with the attitude of those who are imprisoned for some criminal offense. The second objective was to investigate the relative inherent importance of the ten commandments. The technique employed in securing the data was rather simple. The ten commandments were printed in random order on separate sheets of paper with the following instructions at the top of the page. These sheets were distributed to 148 mid-west college students; to 200 prisoners in the Illinois State Penitentiary at Joliet; to 145 boys in the Illinois State Reformatory at Pontiac; and to 31 parents. The combined totals of ranks for each group provided the data for constructing a scale for measuring the attitude of each group toward the ten commandments. By placing the 10 commandments on an objective scale it was possible to measure the difference in attitude between various groups of individuals. This technique also provides a method for determining the relative importance of each commandment.

In this paper, the authors describe a quantitative study of the relation between the extent to which a person is annoyed by the behavior and characteristics of other people and the extent to which he does the same things and has the same characteristics himself. Annoyance are good material for studies of this kind because they possess a very high degree of concreteness and specificity. If a person is annoyed by being slapped on the back, does he slap others on the back; and if he slaps others on the back, is he annoyed by being slapped, on the back? The authors have studied contingencies of this kind for 65 annoyances, and in each case have obtained the regression of the subject's being annoyed by something in other people on doing the same thing himself, and the regression of the subject's doing something himself on his being annoyed by the same thing in other people. One of the chief categories of social psychology is the psychology of interpersonal behavior which involves complex patterns of stimuli and responses, and which includes inner affective processes as well as manual and verbal activities.

The article reports that the measurement of attitude by using attitude scales has in the past two or three years attracted widespread interest. Investigators in many fields are not only endeavoring to measure attitudes with ready-made scales but are also constructing various scales of their own. The successful construction of an attitude scale, however, requires more than knowing merely the mechanical steps of the procedure. In fact, the crucial task which first confronts one in constructing an attitude scale for a given issue is the collection of attitude statements on that issue. This is not a technical part of the construction method, but the success or failure of the scale depends much upon how well the initial list of statements is compiled and edited. The purpose of this paper is to suggest a number of practical rules for writing attitude statements. These suggestions naturally are of special interest to those who construct attitude scales. Aside from the fact that care must be taken to cover adequately the entire range of attitudes so as to prevent a break in any part of the scale.

It was argued in this paper that the appropriate theoretical posture in conformity at the present time is not further proliferation of theoretical concepts, but conservative synthesis from a number of theories to two generic ideas which may be supported empirically. The position was taken that conforming behavior was to be understood only in terms of the concerted interaction of both personal and situational variables. An empirical investigation was reported which described the development of a scale designed to measure the personal predispositions to respond in service of the two major conforming functions. Data were reported on the interaction of persons selected on the basis of this instrument with the manipulated situational variables of goal set and publicness of commitment. The results showed that conformity occurred in an informational manner, in a normative manner, or occurred not at all, depending on its functional relevance under various combinations of persons and situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with a comparison of attitudes toward blindness and toward other physical handicaps. Three experiments were performed on separate samples of social-work students. In each experiment, two comparable questionnaire forms differing in the object to be assessed were randomized among the students. Reactions to "blindness" were compared with reactions to "blind people" and to "physical handicap" and reactions to "blind people" were compared with those to "physically handicapped people." Blindness is seen as more uniquely destructive than other physical handicaps, even though evaluations of the traits of blind and physically handicapped people are similar. Also comparable associations to "blindness" are more severe than those to "blind people." The results are discussed with respect to the degree to which the attitudinal objects focus on the nature of the disability relative to their focus upon the individual having the disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of four studies conducted with a population of 505 persons enrolled in 33 sections of speech-skills courses was designed to determine whether persons who scored relatively high and relatively low on attitude-scale measures of dogmatism could be accurately identified on the basis of their communicative behavior by observers of that behavior. The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale and other open-mindedness scales developed by the authors were the paper-and-pencil instruments used. A variety of communicative situations were employed as the basis for observer judgments, including impromptu speeches on controversial topics, written commentaries on the religious issue in the 1960 presidential election, and verbal interaction during an entire school quarter. Communicative behavior was rated by panels of judges or by peers. Results in all studies indicated that it was possible, with a modest but statistically significant degree of assurance, for observers to predict subjects' scores on dogmatism scales from their communicative behavior. In other words, the dogmatism scales used in these studies received some behavioral validation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that in the study of panic behavior, it is important to distinguish between unorganized and organized collectivities. Researchers defined organized collectivities as those possessing the following characteristics: continuity of existence, awareness of membership, interaction with other organizations, a body of traditions, and differentiation of function. Unorganized collectivities were characterized by the absence of the above. An example of the former would be the Church or the Army, while street crowds or a theatre audience would exemplify the latter. It is the purpose of this paper to review the literature on panic in organized collectivities and to present a theoretical framework within which this behavioral phenomenon may be explained. The understanding and prediction of the behavior of organized formal groups cannot be considered complete without the ability to predict those conditions, which are likely to cause the group no longer to function, or even to exist, as a group. Examination of the literature on military panic reveals little substantive material suitable to analytic treatment. For the most part, the literature is very speculative and abstract in nature. With a few exceptions it is difficult to find actual descriptions of military panics either by participants or by eyewitnesses.

The article presents a cross-cultural study of the behavioral aspects of the concept of religion. The problem with which this study was concerned was the dynamic connotation of the concept of religion for individuals and groups. The best index of the meaning of any concept to a person would be his behavioral responses to the incarnation of that concept. Such a response would be structured by the person's expectations concerning the impact of the structured stimulus on him. A meaning which retains some of the vitality of that index and has the virtue of being much more accessible is to ask people to describe the behavior which they suppose is structured by the concept. This was the mode of operation adopted for the present study. In the light of the nature of the actions ascribed to the religious person it seems reasonable to suppose that the guesses of the subjects regarding the percentage of people in such countries who so act reflect or even help determine the attitude of the subjects toward the country. It should not be supposed, however, that this belief is the total determinant of the attitude.

The purpose of this paper was to investigate the attitudes of foreign students toward American democratic ideals as carried out by most people in the United States, and to examine the conditions under which they develop their attitudes. The subjects were 304 foreign students who attended Purdue University during the second semester of the academic year 1959-60. Data were gathered by mailed questionnaires. The statistical analysis showed that almost all foreign students felt that most people in the United States were less democratically oriented than the students themselves. The only exceptions were Arab, Greek, and Siamese students. Democratic orientation scores of subjects from six countries, namely, Great Britain, Scandinavia, Iran, India, Japan, and Nigeria differed significantly from the scores attributed to most people in the United States. Favorable attitudes toward American democratic orientation were found to be related significantly to two intervening variables, namely, favorable experiences encountered by foreign students in the United States, and adjustment to the academic and social life on American campuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A naive subject, either a leader or a non-leader, was placed in a group with three paid participants. These accomplices supported the subject in the first session, and withdrew this support in the second. The theoretical position of this paper maintained that what is commonly referred to as "leadership ability" is a complex. series of learned responses. It further maintained that individuals who have had the ability and opportunity to learn these responses, i.e., leaders, would have characteristically different attitudes, perceptions and behaviors than would individuals who did not have these responses in their repertoire, i.e., non-leaders. These characteristically different reactions to a group should manifest themselves both in situations where the individual is supported by the group and where he is rejected by it, and should also manifest themselves in differential behavioral changes between the two situations. The subject's behavior was recorded during the experiment and a questionnaire was administered after each session. A series of predictions were made, based upon the theoretical position just described. The results obtained tend to indicate the following differences between leaders and non-leaders in regard to perceptions, behaviors and attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The modern choices of diet are often perceived at odds with the traditional worldviews. This study aimed to test the possibility of improving attitudes toward vegetarians by emphasizing the similarity between vegetarianism and religious fasting. We expected the effects of induction to be moderated by endorsement of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation (SDO-D and SDO-E). Participants (N = 246) were randomly divided into three groups that all read a text about a traditional birthday celebration. The control group read a text about the celebration with meat-based meals, one experimental group read about a celebration with meatless dishes. In the second experimental group it was emphasized that the host became a vegetarian after years of religious fasting. Both inductions improved attitudes toward vegetarians. Only SDO-D proved to be a significant moderator, with induction exhibiting a significant effect at higher levels of SDO-D. The findings inform public communications about reducing meat consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical studies have persistently reported negative attitudes of meat eaters toward vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns), but scant attention has been paid to veg*ns' attitudes toward meat eaters. We aimed to investigate the attitudes of meat eaters and veg*ns from both perspectives. In addition, we explored the attitudes of occasional meat eaters. We performed a cross-sectional study (Study 1) among meat eaters, veg*ns, and occasional meat eaters, as well as a content analysis of publicly available tweets (Study 2). Study 1 (N = 477, Mage = 23.45, SD = 5.91) showed that the attitudes of veg*ns toward meat eaters are significantly more negative compared to the attitudes of meat eaters toward veg*ns, but both were lower than the midpoint on scales measuring negative attitudes toward the other. Study 2 showed that only a small portion (<1%) of tweets (N = 1,328) on meat eating or veg*nism contained signs of negative attitudes. The two studies provide little evidence of the existence of strong negative attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an attempt to compare certain tests which have been employed at one time or another to measure emotional maturity in adults, the Willoughby E M Scale, the McNemar-Landis modification of this test, the Pressey Interest-Attitude Test and the Landis questionary were given to from 79 to 110 college sophomores. The Landis questionary was found to possess a split-half reliability of approximately .85 (stepped up to .92). The intercorrelations were all insignificant with the exception of that between the original and the modified Willoughby (found to be .46). The only conclusion that seemingly can be drawn from these data is that the tests are not measuring one common variable. A discussion of just what they are measuring is not within the scope of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A close reading of papers by Barton, Dielman, and Cattell suggests that supposed relationships reported between parental attitudes and child personality may have been less significant than at first appears. They may have been nothing more than the occasional large correlation that is to be expected in any large matrix of correlations by chance alone. A partial replication of the Barton, Dielman, and Cattell work was carried out by using two samples of 328 girls and their mothers and 327 boys and their mothers reached through schools of rural Punjab. Results very similar to those reported earlier were found—confirming suspicions that nonsignificant results had previously been reported as significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An examination has been made of the relationship between resistance to attitude change and attitudinal entailment, which is the extent to which a particular attitude is related to other attitudes and beliefs. Male and female college students (n = 144) estimated either entailment, psycho-logic (the unique series of syllogisms necessary for an attitudinal conclusion), or neither of these two concerning three hypothetical people with opinions on different issues. The Ss then did or did not (change manipulation) estimate how these people would react to counterattitudinal information. The rating scales completed at the end of the experiment showed that increasing entailment increased resistance to change both concerning predictions about the hypothetical people and, more importantly, concerning the Ss' own attitudes. Increasing psycho-logic or neither entailment nor psychologic did not increase resistance to change (al1 p's < .05). This pattern held for all three issues (hypothetical people). These results support the hypotheses of this paper, a component of Jones and Gerard's model of attitudes, and McGuire's principle of anchoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this paper was to demonstrate the role of the personality variable Machiavellianism and of the situational variable competition vs. noncompetition on the adoption of ingratiation tactics such as paying compliments, other enhancement, and opinion conformity. Thirty-two male undergraduates of a technology institution in India participated in the experiment. Several weeks after the original pretesting on Mach IV scale, high and low mach Ss were assigned to one of the two experimental conditions representing competitive/noncompetitive hypothetical job interview situations. Results clearly support the role of Machiavellianism in adoption of ingratiating behaviors. Those who were high on Mach IV scale scores significantly showed more liking for praising and agreeing with target person in comparison to those who were low on Mach IV scale scores. The situational variable was significant only for opinion conformity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A hierarchical model for the storage of attitudes and values, for which evidence was presented by Gold and Russ, was studied with the use of a choice reaction time paradigm. Twenty three male and female university students responded with evaluative judgments (good-bad, etc.) by pressing one of two telegraph keys to a series of stimuli consisting of 10 of Rokeach's terminal values, 10 values designed by the authors to be the opposites of these terminal values, and 42 attitude items. Items preceded by values to which they were related, as determined through a previously administered paper and pencil measure, were responded to faster than items preceded by unrelated values. The value RT's did not vary as a function of their relatedness to the preceding attitude items. Positively held values were responded to faster than negatively held values. No RT effects were found for matching or mismatching in the evaluative sign of the attitude item-value or value-attitude item pairs. The results were interpreted as supporting a hierarchical storage model of attitudes and values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hierarchical structure of attitudes and values was studied with choice reaction time (RT) as the dependent measure. Male and female undergraduates (N = 21) responded with evaluative judgments (good-bad, etc.) by pressing one of two telegraph keys to a series of stimuli consisting of Rokeach's 18 terminal values alternating with 44 attitude items. Items preceded by values which they enhanced, as determined through a previously given paper and pencil measure, were responded to faster than items preceded by either unrelated values or values, which they blocked. The type of attitude item which preceded the value had no effect on value RT although important values were responded to faster than unimportant ones. A model of memory storage of values, attitudes, and their attributes which paralleled that of Collins and Quillian is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eysenck's Inventory of Social Attitudes was presented together with the 20 Mach TV items to a heterogeneous sample of 206 white American Ss. It was hypothesized that Eysenck's T dimension possesses conceptual validity and that previous studies have inadequately operationalized this variable. The present paper was designed to test the hypothesis that the Machiavellianism scale is a better measure of tough-mindedness than the scale devised by Eysenck. Factor analysis indicated two orthogonal factors best defined as social conservatism and Machiavellianism. A correlational analysis based upon total radicalism (R) scale scores suggested that R does seem to accord reasonably well with current conceptions of economic radicalism. In turn, Mach scores bur not tough-mindedness (T) scores are independent of R. These findings, together with the moderate correlation between Mach and T support the authors' contention that Eysenck's second political attitudinal factor, tough-mindedness, is more appropriately defined by Mach scores than by the T scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempted to investigate the role of social desirability in attitude research. It was hypothesized that changes in questionnaire responses reflect S's need to describe himself in a socially desirable or socially undesirable light, rather than any basic change in attitude. Specifically, it was predicted that type of conformity to propaganda would be a simple function of scores on the SD scale. The SD scale was administered one week prior to exposure to a propaganda appeal. Ss received one of two appeals, a strong fear appeal and a minimal fear appeal. Conformity was evaluated by changes in response to a dental practices scale. The results indicate that scores on the SD scale do relate to conformity, but as a complex function of sex of subject and type of propaganda appeal. It was suggested that the manner in which a propaganda appeal presents its standards of socially desirable behavior may be the relevant factor which interacts with SD. The suggestion is made that future attitude studies should control for SD and methods for so doing are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on experimental investigation of the pull effect. A comparison of the supporters of U.S. senators Joseph McCarthy, Adlai Stevenson and Dwight D. Eisenhower has been done. Anti-McCarthy subjects when compared to pro-McCarthy subjects will tend to give a lower estimate of the strength of McCarthy's support in a perceptually ambiguous situation, and Pro-Stevenson subjects when compared to pro-Eisenhower subjects will tend to give a higher estimate of Stevenson's support in a perceptually ambiguous situation. Attitudes toward McCarthy may involve much more strong feeling titan attitudes relating to Eisenhower and Stevenson. The question relating to Eisenhower and Stevenson was retrospective in nature while that relating to McCarthy demanded awareness of the immediate status of the Senator, and in this respect, exposure to many polls, to the actual election results, and to post-election analyses may have operated to reduce the ambiguity of the Eisenhower-Stevenson issue.

The article presents a discussion on the role expectations of persons occupying different positions within an organization. Recent studies carried out by the Human Relations Programme of the Survey Research Centre, University of Michigan, and by other workers, have indicated the importance of studying the social role and role expectations of persons occupying different positions within an organization. They have shown that application of the concepts of the role theory can lead to a better understanding of sources of tension, conflict or integration within an organization, as well as to the prediction and interpretation of the attitudes and behaviour of persons occupying specific positions within the group. As part of a comprehensive study of the Bantu civil servant, an analysis was made of the social role of the Bantu clerk as perceived by two criterion groups, the white supervisors of the clerks and the Bantu clerks themselves. This article presents and discusses sources of agreement and disagreement between role expectations held by the white supervisors and those held by the Bantu clerks, relates role expectations to data on job efficiency and discusses the implications of the findings.

The article focuses on the study of aggression. It is assumed that the person exhibiting an overaggressive pattern has weak internal restraints against expressing impulses. He attributes aggressive intentions to others in their use of power from his viewpoint others wish to coerce him into doing their bidding. With regard to the overinhibited person, it is assumed that he has strong internal restraints against expressing impulses. He attributes inhibitory intentions to others in their use of power others wish to restrict his movement. As for the intermediate person, it is assumed that he has moderate internal restraints against expressing impulses. He attributes instrumental intentions to others in their usual use of power. In other words, although he is capable of recognizing aggressive or inhibitory intent in others, he does not regard others' efforts to influence him as typically aimed at doing him in or at doing him out of things. The intermediate person is sensitive to external cues because his aggression motive is of low strength.

This article presents a study of the learning of verbal material congruent and incongruent with attitudes. The aim was to select Ss with rather strongly held attitudes and to have them learn verbal materials consistent and inconsistent with these attitudes. The Allport-Vernon Study of Values was given to 319 students in elementary psychology classes and those items pertaining to religious or political-economic attitudes were scored. WA Form R-PE 6 (S) was given to the same groups. Twenty-two Ss were found who met the arbitrary criteria for being designated as Religious (R) S, and 21 Ss for being designated as Political-Economic S. Resulted data are evaluated in two ways, by Chi Square and by the t-test. The evidence summarized in this report suggests that it is easier for Religious Ss to learn paired associates in which the response word is a religious one than it is for them to learn paired associates in which the response word has a political economic meaning. The reverse finding was obtained for Ss with strong political-economic values.

In this article an attempt is made to suggest hypotheses as to the mediating functions of verbal processes and to devise methods for testing such hypotheses. It is postulated here that associated with attitudes or values are verbal responses or potential verbal responses which have congruence with the particular attitudes held with any degree of strength by a particular individual. If one is deeply religious, for example, it seems likely that he will have acquired a rather full vocabulary of religious and religious value terms. The evidence presented in the article is largely consistent with the proposition that attitudes may be measured by relatively simple associative choice techniques. The techniques seem to have satisfactory reliability, and suggestions as to ways of masking their purpose from S have been developed with some success. While the success of the attitude measurement has been determined in terms of correlations with other instruments, these instruments have fairly wide acceptance, and there is evidence that they possess some degree of validity. The differences in completion time displayed for strong and middle attitude groups accord with the expectation that persons with strong attitudes have highly available and dominant attitude relevant terms.

The article reports that in recent years there has been a sharp increase of interest in the influence of personality variables on cognitive processes. A considerable number of studies have attempted to demonstrate experimentally the influence of needs, values, and attitudes on perception, thinking, and memory. It is the express purpose of writers in this field to overcome the dichotomy which has existed in psychology between motivational and cognitive processes. But it can now be seen that they maintain the dichotomy they are trying to eliminate. For they think of needs and attitudes as determinants of cognitive processes of quite a different order from structural determinants, those arising from the nature of the presented material itself. Needs are thought of as quite foreign to structure, going against structural determinants, producing distortions in the presented material. Motivation, in other words, is looked upon as an extraneous influence. But if the two kinds of process are regarded as antagonistic, it follows that the assumption underlying these studies is not the basic psychological unity of the individual. The dichotomy between the two kinds of functioning - motivational and cognitive - is maintained. Thus these authors perpetuate the idea they seek to combat of the essential disunity of man.

The article presents the author's views on scientific morality. The author says that it is alarming to find psychologists reverting to such a coarse pragmatism--a pragmatism that blurs the elementary distinction between "correct" action and "right" action. The author refers to psychologists H. Cantril, and I. Chain and says that they have defined rational act in a rather skimpy fashion. According to the author, the Cantril-Chein criterion of moral action is neither grounded in science, as claimed, nor does it provides a suitable index of good behavior. The author further says that the dangerous parts of Cantril's thesis are his denial of impartiality to scientific method, his confusion of the roles of scientist and moralist, and his urging of a personal morality as scientifically determined.

The article reports on a preliminary study of the relative standing, in both schooling and ready knowledge, of groups of liberal and conservative U. S. adults. The article states that the findings of the study provide a new perspective on the "attitudes-enlightenment" problem, and seem to afford some clews as to where certain types of education and information campaigns might make headway and where they might encounter important psychological barriers. The article provides information about the procedures or methods taken for arranging the data for the study. One of the techniques employed in the study was "Contrasted Groups" in which people in the survey who approved or agreed with a criterion attitude question were compared on information and education with people who disapproved or disagreed with the proposition. The result or the findings were summarized in form of tables. The 16 attitude areas were indicated in the first column together with the approximate date or dates when the questions were asked, and with the putatively liberal answers in capital letters. The most obvious conclusion is, apparently, that no consistent superiority obtains for either liberals or conservatives.

This article focuses on attitudes toward racial segregation in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. In connection with a study of urban racial ecology, the author was confronted with the problem of developing a test of attitudes toward racial segregation. The test was to be given to both colored and white junior and senior high school children. Just before preliminary experimentation with a schedule was undertaken, there came to the author an advance print of A.W. Jones' article "Life, Liberty and Property" in the February 1941, issue of "Fortune." Jones used interviews to secure reactions to a series of cases presented verbally to subjects. These reactions were then graded and combined into a total attitude score. The test consists of a series of hypothetical case situations which are followed by five alternative responses, one of which is to be checked, thereby indicating the subject's degree of approval or disapproval of racial segregation in that particular situation. After the type of schedule had been decided upon, two forms were worked out containing two situations common to both. These schedules were then administered according to a standardized form by the teachers to their pupils in selected grades of several schools in Baton Rouge.