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Wyoming Coal Rules and Regulations require shrubs be returned to mined land and that revegetation "...be self renewing." We evaluated seed production and seed quality of Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. wyomingensis (Beetle & Young)) by measuring the effect of mining, herbivory, and environmental modification on seed production at 5 sites on the Dave Johnston Coal Mine near Glenrock, Wyo. Mined-land stands ranged in age from 5 to >20 years. Single sagebrush plants on mined, and adjacent unmined land were treated by: (1) fabric mulch around the base, (2) windbreak on the north and west, (3) both mulch and windbreak, and (4) neither windbreak nor mulch. Plants were fenced and compared with unfenced, untreated, neighboring plants. Seeds were harvested for 3 years and data were collected on seed-stalk numbers, bulk weight of seeds produced, and seed quality. Fenced mined-land plants produced several times more seeds than fenced plants on adjacent unmined land. There was no difference in seed quality. Treatments to modify the plant environment resulted in some benefits but fencing had a greater effect on seed-quality parameters than did planned treatments. We conclude the sagebrush seed-production potential on reclaimed lands such as those of the Dave Johnston Coal Mine is equal to, and often several times greater than that of adjacent unmined lands. However, browsing by wild ungulates can eliminate the mined-land yield advantage. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v56i5_booth

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.), a widely established exotic, noxious, perennial weed, is a major threat to rangeland and wildland in the Upper Great Plains. A deterministic, bioeconomic model, incorporating relationships between sheep grazing and leafy spurge control, grass recovery, and forage consumption by cattle, and expected costs and returns from sheep enterprises was developed to evaluate the economic viability of using sheep to control leafy spurge. Various scenarios were developed depicting likely situations facing cattle ranches adding a sheep enterprise for leafy spurge control. Two levels of flock profitability, one based on a level of proficiency achieved by established sheep ranches and one substantially lower than typically achieved in the sheep industry, were combined with debt and no-debt to represent best- and worst-case scenarios, respectively. In the best-case situations, using sheep to control leafy spurge was economical in all of the scenarios examined. In the worst-case situations, the economics of using sheep to control leafy spurge were mixed across the scenarios examined. Leafy spurge control with poor flock proficiency, high fence expense, and unproductive rangeland generally was not economical. Situations with low fencing costs, moderately productive rangeland, and poor flock proficiency resulted in less economic loss than no treatment. Actual returns from leafy spurge control for most ranchers will likely fall between the extremes examined. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v54i4_bangsund

Livestock producers and others knowledgeable about the locoweed problem in northeastern New Mexico were surveyed to obtain the production information needed to estimate economic losses from locoweed (Oxytropis/Astragalus) poisoning. A partial budgeting approach was used to estimate economic losses based on animal performance differences with increasing levels of poisoning. With current production costs and 1990-96 average beef prices, annual locoweed poisoning losses were estimated to be $75 head-1 for moderately poisoned animals, and $282 head-1 for severely poisoned animals. The most common locoweed management strategy used by northeastern New Mexico ranchers was to move animals observed eating locoweed into locoweed-free areas. Rehabilitation of these animals for an extended period before sale was found to decrease economic loss relative to immediate sale. Moderately and severely poisoned animals that are rehabilitated were estimated to gain 14% and 29% less than non-intoxicated animals. Other management options including chemical locoweed control, fencing, and locoweed aversion were found to be economically justified when relatively high locoweed infestations are anticipated. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v53i4_torell

Historically, there have been several seminal achievements in management and utilization of privately-owned rangelands. The most important of the early achievements were domestication of livestock, fencing, haying, and the transfer of federal lands to private ownership. Later, federal programs to stimulate range research and extension were the springboard for the modern range research complex. The Morrill Acts established the land-grant institutions with agricultural research as one of the founding principles. The Hatch Act later provided funding for agricultural research, and the Smith-Lever Act funding for the extension of that research to the agricultural industry. Recent trends have been away from funding applied research and towards funding for basic research defined by the political scientific bureaucracy. Those achievements that I consider of major influence in management and utilization of rangelands include: defining stocking rate-animal performance relationships, refining prescribed burning techniques, formulation of selective-translocated herbicides, developing plant varieties and seeding methods for reseeding, matching forage quality with nutritional requirements of livestock, basic research on morphologic and physiologic characteristics of range plants, and information dispersal through extension and federal agencies for better management of rangelands. The future is uncertain, and unless we can reverse the trend away from applied to wholly basic research funding, we will have fewer achievements in managements of privately-owned rangeland. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v53i1_owensby

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) is a noxious weed on rangelands throughout the Northern Great Plains. Most of these ranges are grazed by cattle which do not use leafy spurge as forage. Although sheep graze leafy spurge, most land managers are reluctant to use sheep to control this noxious weed, which may be related to economic uncertainties regarding their profitability. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the economic feasibility of implementing a sheep enterprise to control leafy spurge on cattle ranches. The physical characteristics of a typical Northern Great Plains ranch, recommended stocking rates for cattle and sheep on native and leafy spurge-infested rangelands, and a sheep enterprise budget were developed using information from the literature. A LOTUS spreadsheet was developed to calculate returns over total costs of implementing various sheep enterprises. Annual returns from implementing sheep grazing on 520 ha of leafy spurge on a 4,905 ha ranch exceeded total costs by $4,675. Given the ownership costs and returns of our ranch, the breakeven lamb price would be $1.16 kg-1. Returns per head and per unit of land will vary with the distribution and size of a leafy spurge infestation, and sheep production costs and returns. Returns from sheep grazing were higher when leafy spurge was concentrated in fewer rather than in many pastures. Returns were positive when as little as 4% of the ranch was infested with leafy spurge. The availability and utility of our model will allow land managers to assess the feasibility of developing sheep enterprises to control leafy spurge.

Revegetation of disturbed rangelands in western Canada is severely impeded by cattle grazing. Fencing to protect emergent vegetation is costly and restricts animal movement. Chemically repelling cattle from emergent vegetation may provide a convenient and economical alternative to fencing. This study determined whether certain repellents could reduce grazing intensity on vegetation to which they were applied compared to untreated vegetation. Canopy measurements were used to compare grazing intensity. Three trials were conducted on reclaimed land within the Aspen Parkland region of central Alberta. Time since reclamation was over 10 years in Trial A, 2 years in Trial B, and 3 weeks in Trial C. Pregnant mares' urine, Hinder (150 mg ml-1 ammonium soaps), Skoot (120 mg mi-1 tetramethylthiuram disulfide), and Deer-Away Big Game Repellent (37% putrescent egg solids) were evaluated. Two concentrations of each repellent were sprayed onto 1 X 3-m treatment plots randomized within blocks replicated 4 to 6 times. Plot canopies were measured either by gently resting a sheet of plastic laminate over the canopy, or by lowering a sliding bar attached perpendicularly to a meter stick until it contacted the uppermost leaves of the canopy, and recording the height of the sheet or bar above the soil surface. Canopies of plots treated with Big Game Repellent were taller than control plot canopies on each measurement date in all trials, indicating grazing was reduced. Big Game Repellent plots were also generally taller than plots treated with other repellents. Canopies of plots treated with pregnant mares' urine, Hindero, and Skooto generally did not differ from control plots, nor did they differ from each other in any trial. Low repellent concentrations did not reduce grazing in any trial, but high concentrations reduced grazing in all trials. Repellent effectiveness was not permanent since all canopy measurements became shorter with time. Big Game Repellent was effective in reducing grazing intensity by cattle, but practical use of repellents for grazing management requires further investigation.

Over the past 2 centuries, the island of Kaho'olawe has suffered the ravages of war, slash-and-burn agriculture, and overgrazing. Today, much of the island is barren and severely eroded. A research project initiated in 1988 has sought to identify effective, economical techniques to revegetate portions of the island. Treatments included drill seeding plus several rates of fertilization with monoammonium phosphate (11-52-0). Some treatments also include jute netting for soil moisture conservation and erosion control. The effect of windbreak fencing was evaluated across all treatments. Drill seeding plus broadcast application of at least 62 kg ha(-1) N plus 291 kg ha(-1) P205 was the most cost-effective treatment. Jute netting and windbreak fencing significantly enhanced plant production, but the high cost of materials and maintenance limits their use to critical areas. The planted species with greatest promise for the windy, semiarid conditions on Kaho'olawe were buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris L.), bermudagrass [Cynodon dac- tylon (L.) Pers.] and weeping lovegrass [Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees]. Although not included in the seed mixture, Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata R. Br.), a naturalized species, responded favorably to fertilization. A subsequent, larger scale revegetation project using a specially modified chisel plow seeder to scarify, plant, and apply in-furrow fertilization in a single-pass operation reduced the cost and improved the results of the revegetation process.

Improved carrying capacity of grasslands has been attributed to the effect of time-controlled grazing with high animal density, which can be achieved by increased stocking rates as well as by fencing. Therefore, a study was conducted to test the hypothesis that time-controlled grazing with high animal densities and high stocking rates will improve grassland condition. The study was made over a 6-year period on 3 sites with time-controlled grazing imposed. One site was on native grassland in the Fescue Prairie and 2 sites, I on seeded and the other on native grassland, were in the Mixed Prairie. On each site, stocking densities averaged 3, 6, and 15 cow-calf pairs/ha, respectively, and stocking rates averaged 1.65, 4.45, and 2.72 animal unit months/ha, respectively. Species composition and root mass and distribution were compared on grazed and protected areas within each site. Utilization averaged about 80% of available forage over the study period. Range condition was less on grazed areas than on protected areas in the Fescue Prairie (38 vs 53% of climax) and in the Mixed Prairie (49 vs 53%). Average ash-free root mass, throughout the sampling profile, tended to be greater on the ungrazed vs the grazed area of the native Mixed Prairie site but not on the seeded Mixed Prairie or Fescue Prairie sites. The grazed areas of the Mixed Prairie sites tended to have more available phosphorus, possibly due to the application of manure, but less nitrogen and organic matter. The results led to a rejection of the hypothesis and a conclusion that high animal density and high stocking rates with time-controlled grazing would result in range deterioration.

Removal of livestock grazing along a small, perennial desert stream allowed the reestablishment of woody vegetation (Sulix amygdaloides) in the riparian zone within 10 years. Small spring/streams are widely distributed in the semiarid, sagebrush-steppe region of the northwestern United States. They are characteristically bordered by narrow corridors of deciduous trees especially cottonwoods (Populus spp.) and/or willows (Salix spp). The value of these wooded habitats of limited extent to bird populations is well recognized and has been especially well documented on the Arid Lands Ecology (ALE) reserve in south-central Washington (Rotenberry et. al. 1979). Historically, spring streams have also been the focal points of human habitation and the congregation areas for herds of domestic livestock that pasture in the surrounding sagebrush-steppe and trek back and forth to the few widely separated spring streams that serve as watering points. The physiological requirement for drinking water has tended to concentrate livestock at a few places, causing damage and even destruction of riparian woody vegetation (Thomas et al. 1979). Our paper reports on the self-recovery of woody vegetation along a small spring/ stream in south central Washington after exclusion of livestock by fencing.

Environmental and topographic parameters on a mountainous forested range were analyzed to establish causes of cattle behavioral responses. Distinct home range groups of cattle were identified through examination of quality and patterns of forage use, cattle distribution, herd social structure, and cattle activities. The home range of one group encompassed only upland areas. Water and vegetation type were important parameters in determining area and degree of use. Vertical distance above water was the most important factor in determining vegetation utilization on moderately steep slopes. Time after sunrise and relative humidity factors were key factors in determining kind and timing of cattle activity. Cattle have been grazing forested ranges in western United States for more than 125 years (United States Senate 1936). Grazing units on the forests have been fenced, restricting livestock to given areas. Fencing placed definite limits on forage and often increased animal concentration on key vegetation types. Some vegetation types were over-utilized while others were left ungrazed. As the demand for more and varied uses of mountain land areas increases, it becomes important to enhance livestock distribution, alleviating concentration problems and minimizing real or potential conflicts with other resource uses. Detailed information assessing the pattern of livestock use, the types and amounts of forage consumed, and livestock distribution is required. This is only baseline information; in order to apply it, one must know the cause and the mechanism of each parameter. Determining causes for observed actions of cattle overlaps range management and applied behavioral sciences. External physical and biotic influences interact with the animal’s innate behavioral complex to produce a given response. Measurement of influencing parameters must be matched with the animal response and examined to establish the cause and effect relationship. Distance from water, topography, temperature, humidity, and forage availability have been rated as important parameters in modifying animal behavior. Herd structure is a behavioral factor which could have considerable influence on grazing patterns and forage use. Many researchers have observed a given event and assessed the impact on vegetation, but those observations were often not analyzed in terms of what caused the event. This research was designed to quantitatively define the influences of topography, environment and biotic factors on cattle distribution and grazing habits. Cattle behavioral responses to external factors were described by regression relationships.

Highlight: Poisonous plants rank high among the causes of economic loss to the livestock industry. Losses come not only through death and disability of livestock but through costs associated with interference with management programs such as additional fencing and altered grazing program. One of the best means of avoiding poisonous plant problems is by complete familiarity with poisonous plants likely to be encountered by livestock. Important plants causing congenital birth defects; plants containing cyanide, oxalate, nitrates, selenium, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids; as well as a few specific plants as larkspurs and hemlock and those producing photosensitization are reviewed briefly and results of more recent research are considered.

Electric fences with alternating charged and grounded wires were evaluated throughout 1?/2-2'/2 grazing seasons on five farms under conditions typical of most domestic sheep operations in the forested areas of Alberta. These fences eliminated or sharply reduced predation and appear to be an economical, effective, nonlethal method for preventing coyote predation of domestic

Field tests to evaluate electric fencing for protecting pastured sheep from coyote predation were conducted in North Dakota and Kansas in 1977 and 1978. In 1979, 37 western sheep producers using electric fences to exclude coyotes were interviewed and relevant data were recorded and analyzed. An all-electric 12-wire, 168-cm-high fence with alternately charged and grounded wires spaced 13 and 15 cm apart stopped ongoing coyote predation on the two North Dakota test sites. Four or five strands of electrified wire, offset 13 cm from existing woven and barbed wire sheep fences, effectively prevented further coyote predation at two Kansas sites. Sheep producers interviewed expressed a high to moderate degree of satisfaction with the use of electric fencing as a coyote management technique. However, sheep management practices on two-thirds of the ranches remained unchanged after electric fence installation and nearly all producers continued to use other control methods. Sixty percent of the producers stated that they experienced some type of maintenance problems but many of these problems may have been due to poor construction techniques or a failure to check their fences periodically. ost-benefitfactorsassociated with the use of electric fencing, study limitations, and further research needs are discussed. Woven or "net" wire fences have been used for many years as perimeter barriers or drift fences to exclude coyotes (Canis latrans)

Evidence suggests that the range livestock industry in the Nortbem Great Plains is not as productive as it should be. Ranchers are not readily adopting tbe range improvement practices tbat researcbers recommend. Therefore, an economic survey of eastern Montana ranchers was conducted to evabtate tbe current status of range improvement practices. Specific objectives were to determine: (1) if range improvement investments were bdluenced by ranch sire; (2) the kbrds of range improvements that were being implemented; (3) the areas where additional research was needed in range improvements; and (4) if stocking rates were brfbtenced by ranch size. It was determined that a majority of the ranchers bad purchased equipment and invested in additional water developments, fencing, and other structural improvements during the previous five-year period. A much smaller percentage bad invested in seeded pastures, contour furrows, fertilizer, and other nonstructural improvements. Although small ranches bad more range improvements developed per unit area, large ranches (401 animal units or more) were investing in range improvements more frequently than smaller ranches. Questionnaires returned from 568 ranchers buiicated that research on range improvement practices should emphasize range seeding. Stocking rate on rangeland was not brfluenced by ranch sire. Eastern Montana is an important livestock producing region. During a 1979 survey, 68 1,300 cattle, including calves, and 215,600 stock sheep and lambs, were counted in 14 eastern counties (Montana Dept. of Agr. 1980). Annual cash receipts from the sale of livestock and livestock products totaled $200,745,700. Studies evaluating range improvement practices have shown that a variety of different improvement practices can increase herbage production in eastern Montana (Black and Reitz 1969, Houston 1971, Wight 1975, Wight et al. 1978, Wight and White 1974). Such range improvement practices can substantially increase livestock production in eastern Montana (Houstonand Urick 1972, Wight et al. 1978) and in other regions (Cook and Jefferies 1963, Kearl 1975, Kearl 1979, Workman and Hooper 1968). Range improvements are “special treatments, developments, and structures used to improve range forage resources or to facilitate their use by grazing animals” (Valentine 1971). Although a wide selection of improvement practices exist, Wheeler (1970) determined that capital expenditures for range improvements in the northern Great Plains were largely limited to water development and fencing. A recent U.S. Forest Service study (Horvath et al. 1978), suggested that land management agencies have also invested most of their improvement funding on water development and fencing. Wheeler (1970) suspected that water and fencing were popular improvements because they allowed the rancher to immediately graze more livestock by improving distribution on the same land base. However, he cautioned that the practice of increasing livestock numbers to use the newly accessible portions of the range could lead to overstocking and be detrimental to the long-term productivity of an area. Authorsare range extension specialist, Montana State University, Bozeman 59717; range scientist, USDA, ARS, 270South Orchard, Boise, Idaho 83705;and professor, Department of Range Science, Utah State University, Logan 84322. This article is a contribution from the Northwest Watershed Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USD+; Bureau of Land Management, USDI; and Montana State University, Bozeman, m cooperation with the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow 83843. Manuscript accepted April 3, 1984. 2 Nonstructural kinds of range improvements, such as brush control, seeded pastures, and contour furrowing have not been as popular as fencing, water developments, and other structural improvements (Lacey 1981). Their economic benefits tend to be less obvious than those from structural improvements. Although scientists develop and field test range improvement practices, it is the livestock producer who ultimately determines the number and kind of improvements on his ranch. Therefore, an economic survey of eastern Montana ranches was conducted to evaluate the current status of range improvement practices. Specific objectives were to determine: (1) if range improvement investments are dependent on ranch size; (2) the kinds of range improvements that are being implemented; (3) the needs (as perceived by the rancher) in the area of range improvement research; and (4) how the use of range improvement practices could influence stocking rate differences between ranch sizes. To enhance communication between ranchers, agricultural lenders, and range scientists,these issues must be resolved. Better communication is needed among these facets of the range livestock industry to ensure long-term productivity.

The intensity and pattern of cattle use of small riparian meadows were studied by periodically sampling vegetative standing crop and by continuously monitoring meadows with time-lapse photography. Temperature and relative humidity were also measured in riparian and upland plant communities. Herbage standing crop at the end of the grazing season was similar under continuous grazing and the early and late grazing periods of a two pasture deferredrotation grazing system. Early grazing tended to decrease the total cattle occupation and the frequency of cattle occupation of riparian meadows when compared to continuous grazing. Late grazing tended to increase the frequency of cattle occupation but did not change the total cattle occupation of riparian meadows when compared to continuous grazing. Cattle were present on a given meadow site on about 60% of all days but for only 3-10% of the total daylight period. Cattle occupation of riparian meadows was greater during the afternoon hours. The seasonal pattern of cattle occupation was influenced by the location where cattle entered a pasture but not by seasonal temperatures. Temperature and the temperature-humidity index did not differ between riparian and upland plant communities between 12~00 noon and 6~00 p.m. Riparian meadows are narrow, highly productive plant communities occurring along stream courses. These meadows are usually dominated by grasses and grasslike plants but shrubs are often a major vegetative component. Cattle preference for riparian meadows is a major influence on overall grazing distribution on mounAuthors are assistant professor. Department of Agronomy, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, and professor and associate professor, Department of Rangeland Resources, Oregon State Universitv, Corvallis. resoectivelv. Miller is located at the Eastern Oregon~Agricultural Reseakh Center at Bums, tie. This article is submitted as Tech. Paoer No. 7064. Orenon Anricultural Exoeriment Station,, Corval!is. This research was’supported by fuids fr;m the Oren thundershowers, which stimulated new forage growth on the uplands; and a microclimatic shift to more favorable conditions in the uplands (Bryant 1982). Over the last 2 decades, an increasing amount of attention has been given to the idea that excessive cattle use has reduced the usefulness of the riparian zone for wildlife species, especially fish (Ames 1977, Platts 1979, Thomas et al. 1979). Bowers et al. (1979) summarized 5 studies that indicated an average 200% increase in trout biomass when improper grazing was controlled and streams were managed for optimum trout habitat. Platts (1981) stated streams impacted by cattle overuse are wider, shallower, warmer, have less overhead cover, and have more fine sediment than unimpacted streams. He further stated livestock impacts are usually JOURNAL OF RANGE MANAGEMENT 38(3), May 1985 205 small cumulative changes that occur over several years (Platts 1982). Fencing and complete exclusion of grazing from riparian ecosystems is often recommended as a means of controlling livestock impact on riparian meadows (Armour 1979, Behnke and Raleigh 1979, Bowers et al. 1979). While fencing and livestock exclusion would certainly alleviate some aspects of the problem, it does not seem practically feasible on a broad scale and also implies that any level of livestock use would be detrimental. Fencing riparian zones to allow strict control of intensity and season of use seems to be a more reasonable approach. Light to moderate late season grazing has been most often advocated (Bowers et al. 1979, Platts 1981) and has shown good results in practice (Claire and Starch 1977, Kauffman 1982). However, the use of fencing will probably be limited economically to the larger and more important riparian areas (Platts 1979). Small riparian meadows along primary drainages may only range from 5 to 30 m in width but may total several miles in length in a single mountain range pasture. While these meadows are the riparian areas most susceptible to alteration by cattle grazing (May and Davis 1982), they are also the most difficult areas to fence. If cattle grazing patterns on these long, narrow riparian systems need to be changed, some combination of alternative grazing management practices must be employed. While all of the usual livestock distribution practices have been suggested as at least partial solutions, the implementation of grazing systems has been given the most attention. Continuous seasonlong or year-long grazing is generally considered to be a detrimental and unacceptable management scheme for riparian meadows (Reid and Pickford 1946; Pond 1961; Platts 1981, 1982), so some type of specialized grazing plan appears necessary. Platts (1981) rated most standard grazing plans as to their ability to maintain quality instream habitat; no system was rated better than fair. He stated none of the present grazing strategies would be satisfactory in this aspect. However, as more data have become available, Platts (1982) has indicated the situation may be better than first thought. The objectives of this study were to: (a) determine the intensity and pattern of cattle use of small riparian meadows under continu: ous and deferred rotation grazing management and (b) compare the temperature and relative humidity regimes of riparian and upland plant communities.

Fencing has been proposed as the best alternative for rapid restoration of streamside riparian zones. In this study the major portion of the streamside riparian zone was excluded by fencing. Use by cows with calves and by yearlings was evaluated on the remaining portion of the riparian and upland zones during the summer grazing season. Regardless of aspect, both classes of livestock generally selected the riparian zone over the uplands throughout most of the summer grazing season. Both classes of livestock reversed their selection in favor of upland vegetation in the latter part of the season. Slopes less than 35% were preferred throughout the grazing season. Cows were more selective in use of certain plant communities than yearlings and, contrary to usual findings, distributed themselves over the range better than yearlings. Neither salt placement nor alternate water location away from the riparian zone influenced livestock distribution appreciably. Throughout the Pacific Northwest, riparian zones make up a small part of the total land base, yet receive a disproportionately large part of the resource in forest use (Thomas et al. 1979). Due to the favorable moisture, riparian zones surpass other habitats in terms of productivity and use. Recreation, timber harvest, road and railroad construction, and grazing by both wildlife and domestic livestock have a dramatic impact on this highly productive zone. Land managers are under pressure to improve water quality and maintain or enhance anadromous fisheries. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972) requires that by 1983, all waters on public lands will be suitable for recreation and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife; and the elimination of pollutant discharge into navigable water will be required by 1985. The 1972 Act also stipulates that the Environmental Protection Agency will be responsible for monitoring sources of point and non-point pollution. All animals on open ranges are a potential source of nonpoint pollution. The literature of range management is essentially devoid of information specific to the management of riparian zones. The impacts associated with livestock grazing in the riparian zone have become a subject of controversy in recent years (Carothers 1977). Potential solutions to preconceived problems are only now being formulated and tested. Cattle (Bos faurus) prefer the diversity, quality, and succulence of vegetation found in riparian zones (Ames 1977). The relationship between the microclimate of an area and cattle use is not well documented. The common solution has been to fence livestock out of the riparian zone. This approach is expensive, both in terms offencing costs and loss of forage. Other less drastic approaches, if successful, would be preferred. This study is part of a larger effort to accumulate information essential to development of livestock grazing systems that could protect riparian vegetation from overuse by cattle. Author is wildlife biologist, U.S. Dep. Agr. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Range and Wildlife Habitat Laboratory, Route 2, Box 2315, La Grande, Ore. 97850. 760 The objectives of this study were to: 1. Determine differences in use patterns of yearling cattle and of cows with calves in pastures containing both riparian and upland mountain range plant communities, 2. Evaluate behavioral responses of cattle that are excluded from the riparian zone by fencing, 3. Determine differences in use between yearlings and cow-calf pairs between cover types on north and south aspects, and 4. Determine differences in 1,2, and 3 above due to the periods within the grazing season (time periods 1, II, and III).

G RASS production in New Zealand is basic, not only to agriculture but also to the entire national economy. On a land area (66 million acres) slightly smaller than that of Colorado, but with only a little more than 42 million acres occupied, New Zealand supports a sheep population (33 million head) greater than that of the United States plus about 5 million cattle and smaller numbers of hogs, horses and goats. This entire livestock population is a product of the pastures. Even the pigs are grazed and supplemented with skim milk and whey from the dairy industry. Of the 2 million acres under cultivation, more than one-third is in “plantations” of introduced timber trees, chiefly Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), and nearly onethird is in temporary pasture crops, leaving only about one-half million acres for cash field crops. In New Zealand, “grassland agriculture” is not simply a term designating some far-distant goal toward which to strive. Theirs is, in fact, a grassland agriculture in the highest sense, an agriculture in which the operation of all but a few specialized farms (fruit, truck, tobacco, etc.) is based on grass production and utilization. Grassland agriculture has in some cases been carried too far. The economy of the nation and the welfare of the farmers themselves would be benefited by wider use of cultivated food crops in rotation with the grasses. It is now

E LECTRIC fence has been in service on the ranch since the fall of 1943 . . . eight years. The charged one-wire fence has now been adapted to the range as a permanent improvement, and 40 miles of it have been built,. If. labor had been available, the expensive and inadequate permanent type of “strength” fence would probably still be in use. The need of distributing and holding cattle on a range already used by sheep was adequately solved, however, by the use of the electric fence. The use problem consisted of grazing areas that were left ungrazed by the sheep, or areas where herding was difficult. Much coarse grass, that the sheep found unpalatable, was left on many areas, while other spots were cronped extremely close. Many of the better sheep feeds were’ being supressed, not only by the sheep, but by the coarser grasses. Regular barb-wire fence, with its high costs, would be unduly expensive for enclosing these many range areas that have part of the palatable forage consumed by the sheep.

T HIS paper deals with elk problems in Montana and management practices which are being applied in working them out. Many of the aspects of this discussion appear to apply widely throughout the elk ranges of the west. We are frank to admit that we have not solved all of our problems. We are working with them and have gained much by observing what neighboring states have done in similar situations. One of the highlights of this program has been the close cooperation with the landholders and public agencies responsible for the management of the land.

lReceived November 7, 1970, accepted for publication February 24, 1971. Cooperative investigation of the Plant Science Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada. University of Nevada Journal Series No. 177. Appreciation is extended to Erin Forrest of the XL Ranch for furnishing and fencing the experimental area. of natural drainage on the distribution and forms of phosphorus in some Iowa prairie soils. Soil Sci. Sot. Amer. Proc. 30: 624-630. SCOTT, JOHN M. 1920. Bahiagrass. J. Am. Sot. of Agron. 12:112-114. TAN, K. H., J. H. EDWARDS, JR., E. R. BEATY, AND R. A. MCCREERY. 1970. Soil organic matter content and composition as related to ley management and fertilization. Soil Sci. Sot. Amer. Proc. 34: 610-612. WEAVER, J. E., V. H. HOUGEN, AND M. D. WELDON. 1935. Relation of root distribution to organic matter in prairie soil. Botan. Gaz. 96:389420.

Conservation of range land is basically EL matter of grazing management but the rancher is also concerned with other practices such as fencing, water development, salting, and weed eradication. Though many factors arr involved, the most important are correct numbers of livratoek, including good distribution, and grazing during the proper season. These are two of the most difficult and important problems clue to the fact that (a) various range units involve many forage species, many having different values and different growth habits, (b) quantitative analysis of the forage cover on various range units is difficult, (c) the effect of various intensities and ~ensons of use upon the physiological well-being of forage plants is little understood, and (d) fluctuations in weather, especially precipitation, 0 c c u r from season to season and from year to year, accompanied by a confusing complexity of variations in forage yields and developmental behavior. Despite those difficulties, accurate drtwminations of the grazing capacity must be made if the range is to be handled properly. Continued failure to evaluate correctly the capacity of range land is certain to result in failure of the livestock enterpriseand in impaired land vnlues. Grazing land vnlues generally are proportionate to the expected annual returns in the form of livestock products. When continuous overutilization is allowed to take place, the forage cover is reduwd and livestock production declines, thus reducing the capital value of the land. Roth quantity and quality of range vegetation are reduced as range condition (or state of health) goes from excellent to poor. This is indicated in Table I from the work of Allred (1950) in Texas.

The grazing capacity of mountain rangelands can be increased by management practices which improve cattle distribution. In this study, the increased economic returns resulting from pond construction, spring development, and trail construction appear to justify investment in these projects by either private operators or the federal government. Guzzler construction may be a sound investment for the stockman, but does not appear profitable for the federal government. Under the conditions of this study, fencing mountain rangelands was not profitable for either stockmen or the federal government. Both strategic salting and cattle herding (drifting) appear to be profitable practices for the rancher.

East Africa, were surveyed during 1967 and 1968. The average ranch was 35,400 acres, with approximately 3,000 cattle. Conservative estimates indicate a wildlife population of at least 100,000 animals of Thomson's gazelle size or larger, with some data being obtained on a total of 64 species. Most of the ranchers were tolerant of wildlife, in reasonable numbers, and except for certain species. The three most important wildlife-related problems were disease transmission, forage competition, and damage. Ranch practices which influenced wildlife were fencing (particularly game-proof fences), bush control, and shooting. The average rancher is interested in the possibility of a biologically sound, controlled game utilization scheme under which game meat could be sold. The potentials of expanded sport hunting and game cropping can make wildlife a profitable asset to the ranchers. Unless some means of assuring the landowner of a substantial return on the wildlife on his ranch is provided, the generally tolerant attitude prevailing now will deteriorate, and with it the status of the wildlife.

Tobosa (Hilaria mutica (Buckl.) Benth.), a drought resistant grass of the arid Southwest, occurs primarily on heavier textured soils, but is not limited to them. It is relatively unpalatable to livestock during the dormant season but is readily grazed during the growing season. Therefore, where possible, tobosa flood plains should be fenced separately and grazed during the growing season while the upland pastures are deferred. These flood plains supporting tobosa in high density and receiving additional water as runin from adjacent mountains can produce several times the herbage of upland sites. On ranches where the area of tobosa flood plains is limited, increased yields of tobosa will enable the operator to defer the upland pastures more completely and for a longer time in the growing season. The objective of this study was to determine tobosa herbage yields and quality on flood plains as influenced by fertilizer treatments in relation to the effects of available moisture.

The need for proper management of the range resources of Western United States has been recognized for many years. It has only been recently realized that to secure adequate management, game populations as well as livestock numbers must be held to the limits of the food supply. Competition between livestock and game such as deer and elk on both private and public land appears to be one of the major land use problems of the West. The purpose of this paper is to present the historical, biological and economic aspects of the situation so that land managers and other interested groups may be more fully informed on this question. At the turn of the century elk populations were at an all time low. In some areas the native population had been completely eliminated. Since 1910 big game numbers have increased as a result of public interest in wildlife conservation. Elk numbers increased from an estimated number of some 50,000 to 70,000 in 1910 to about 300,000 in 1952 (Hickie, 1953). The major increase came, in the period 1920 to 1940 when the increase was about 500 percent. Between 1940 and 1952 the rate had dropped somewhat but the population is still on the rise. Hunter take is gradually increasing and is about 15 percent of the winter herd. This leaves an increment equal to from 5 to 10 percent of the winter herd as the annual rate of increase in elk numbers. The development and use of western lands for crop production and livestock grazing resulted in the occupation of a considerable portion of the original home of elk and deer (Koch, 1941; Murie, 1951). The " expansion of game populations on these lands, has created conflicts of interest in the use of western range and forest lands. Leek (1911) and Graves and Nelson (1919) report the earliest occurrence of a, conflict of interest. Shoemaker (1930), Roberts (1930) and Smith (1930) recognized the problem in the Southwest and in Montana prior to 1930. Pickford and Reid (1943) in Oregon report competition for forage between elk and sheep on high summer range. Olson (1945) describes how the problem developed with the Nebo herd in Utah. Craighead (1952) indicates actual and potential competition b e t w e e n livestock and elk in Jackson Hole, Wyoming; Mitchell and Lauckhart (1948) describe the problem of elk management in the Yakima Valley of Wa.shington. In Montana two large acquisitions of private range land by the State Fish and Game Department were made mainly to reduce the complaints by stockmen because of elk depredations to range and hay stacks. Other states have purchased land to extend the amount of range for wintering elk (Rutherford, 1954). Late and special hunts on elk, fencing projects and even herding of elk are all examples of attempts to alleviate pressure by elk on private land (Cooney, 1952). Hall (1952) recently reported on an elk-sheep range problem area on the Sitgreaves Forest in Arizona where sheep summer range is important elk winter range. Hanson (1952) reports on the problem in Canada. These examples indieate the extent of the situation. However, it is best to point out that for the most part they are local in nature. It is a significant fact that if these problems are not solved locally they ma.y eventually become quite extensive with unfortunate results both to livestock and game interests.

M Y PERSONAL experiences in ranching for profit and conservation have been confined largely to the Quarter Circle U Ranch, in Southeastern Montana. The home ranch lies in the Tongue River Valley between Miles City, Montana, and Sheridan, Wyoming. The elevation is approximately 3,200 feet in the Valley and 4,300 feet on the divides. The annual precipitation is about 13 inches and the temperature varies from 110 degrees above to 50 degrees below zero. The ranch has a varied land pattern consisting of deeded land, state land, Section 15 Taylor grazing land, Indian land, and a national forest permit. It is not my intention to be boastful of this ranching operation in describing my personal experiences and I certainly do not intend to tell others how to run t,heir ranches. Varied types of ranches and ranges require varied types of management. The Quarter Circle U Ranch .is very similar in most respects to many others in that area, except for one set of facts of which I am proud. The ranch had its beginning in 1882, when my father, not too long from Boston, driving a freight wagon south from Miles City, saw a likely spot and decided to settle down on the site that is now and always has been the ranch headquarters. He started with a squatter’s right and no capital. The present operation runs 2000 head of cattle on 70,000 acres-no mortgage and some money in the bank. This has been accomplished without changing hands, without going broke, without striking oil, without marrying money, and without marketing any product but cattle. It has been built up solely by the use of its range grass. The cattle are a breeding herd of good quality grade Herefords, and our normal operation is to sell past-yearling steers in October. Our bulls are turned on the range June 15, and the calves are branded at that time. Replacement heifers are not bred until two years old. Calves are fed hay and concentrates for about three months-January, February and March. The grown cattle mostly graze yearlong. We have approximately 250 acres under irrigation and put up about 600 tons of hay each year. If my memory serves me right, our range grass is now in better condition than it was 35 years ago. The turning point in range improvement was the enactment of the Taylor Grazing law-changing open range from a dumping ground to a controlled operation, with an incentive to improve the

R ANGE Management is not for my small ranch.” This attitude is often encountered by educators and professional agricultural workers and is one that must be overcome before the maintenance and improvement of range productivity becomes a way of life in American agriculture. Several things have contributed to the development of this attitude. Probably of major importance is a lack of understanding on the part of the rancher as to just what a range management program is. Another is the relatively common idea t,hat carrying out a range management program is expensive-too expensive for the small operator. A third contributing factor is that a sound range management program does not immediately become profitable. Just what is a range management program? The exact nature of the program will vary from ranch to ranch according to the conditions existing. It may include such items as (1) adjusting the kinds and numbers of livestock to balance with the forage produced by the present range; (2) a system of rotation or deferred grazing to improve the composition and cover ‘of the range; (3) brush eradication; (4) better distribution of grazing through proper fencing and salt placement; and (5) reseeding. Too often ranchers hold the idea that range management enthusiasts advocate selling off livestock and not much else. Even without a material reduction in number of livestock, often an increase in the amount of forage produced is received through deferred and rotation grazing alone or in conjunction with other management principles. Every good businessman knows that it takes money to make money. Therefore, if any unit is large enough to be operated at a profit under normal management, the same unit should be capable of producing a larger profit with some additional investment. Any improvement in farming or ranching operations usually means additional expense and lapse of time in order to produce the desired increase in profits. The same is true of range management. Ordinarily the small ranch of from 100 to 600 acres consists of some cultivated land which often produces as much or more feed and income than the native rangeland. Judicious use of cropland can materially reduce the expense and length of time involved in increasing range profits through a balanced range management program. A typical range management program is that practiced on a 330-acre ranch in Kendall County, in the southeastern portion of the Edwards Plateau. The ranch consists of 65 acres in cultivation and two native pastures totaling 250 acres. Early in 1945, a complete conservation program was started on this ranch. First to receive treatment was the cropland, which was then used in conjunction with a range management program on the 250 acres of native range. The range improvement program consisted of a reduction in livestock numbers, clearing brush, and rotation grazing between the two pastures. The stocking rate with cattle, sheep, and goats at one animal unit to