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Unlabelled: Chronic pain commonly accompanies long-term disabilities such as spinal cord injury (SCI). Research suggests that patient motivation to engage in adaptive pain coping strategies, such as exercise/stretching and task persistence, is an important factor in determining the impact that this pain will have on quality of life. One recently proposed model (the Motivational Model of Pain Self-Management) suggests that motivation to manage pain is influenced by 2 primary variables: Beliefs about the importance of engaging in pain self-management (ie, perceived importance) and beliefs about one's own ability to engage in these behaviors (ie, self-efficacy). The purpose of this study was to provide a preliminary test of this model in a sample of 130 adults with SCI who completed a return by mail survey. Measures included a numerical rating scale of pain intensity and the revised version of the Multidimensional Pain Readiness to Change Questionnaire. Mediation analyses were performed using multiple regression. Results suggested that the effects of perceived importance and self-efficacy on exercise behavior were mediated by readiness to engage in exercise, consistent with the proposed model. However, the model could not be established for the outcome of task persistence.Perspective: This study tests a model describing motivation to engage in pain management behaviors (ie, "readiness to change") in adults with SCI. This model could potentially aid clinicians in their conceptualization of the factors that affect patient motivation to manage pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A variety of evidence-based psychosocial treatments now exist for chronic pain. However, on average, effect sizes have tended to be modest and there is a high degree of heterogeneity in treatment response. In this focus article, we explore the potential role that therapist quality in delivering treatment may have in accounting for a degree of this variability in outcome. Therapist quality refers to the skillful delivery of treatment, harnessing both specific and common therapeutic factors during sessions. While recognized as important to assess and report in clinical trials by some reporting guidelines, few randomized controlled trials evaluating psychosocial treatments for chronic pain have reported on therapist factors. We reviewed the clinical trials included in three systematic reviews and meta-analyses of trials of cognitive-behavioral therapy (mainly), mindfulness-based interventions, and acceptance and commitment therapy. We found that of the 134 trials included, only nine assessed and reported therapist quality indicators, with a variety of procedures used. This is concerning as without knowledge of the quality in which treatments are delivered, the estimates of effect sizes reported may be misrepresented. We contextualize this finding by drawing on the broader psychotherapy literature which has shown that more skillful, effective therapists demonstrated ten times better patient response rates. Examination of the characteristics associated with these more effective therapists tends to indicate that skillful engagement of common factors in therapy sessions represents a distinguishing feature. We conclude by providing recommendations for assessing and reporting on therapist quality within clinical trials evaluating psychosocial treatments for chronic pain. PERSPECTIVE: Therapist quality in the delivery of psychosocial treatments for chronic pain has rarely been assessed in clinical trials. We propose that therapist quality indicators are an under-studied mechanism that potentially contributes to the heterogeneity of treatment outcomes. We provide recommendations for assessing and reporting on therapist quality in future trials., (Copyright © 2024 United States Association for the Study of Pain, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Different psychological chronic pain treatments benefit some individuals more than others. Understanding the factors that are associated with treatment response-especially when those factors differ between treatments-may inform more effective patient-treatment matching. This study aimed to identify variables that moderate treatment response to 4 psychological pain interventions in a sample of adults with low back pain or chronic pain associated with multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, acquired amputation, or muscular dystrophy (N = 173). The current study presents the results from secondary exploratory analyses using data from a randomized controlled clinical trial which compared the effects of 4 sessions of cognitive therapy (CT), hypnosis focused on pain reduction (HYP), hypnosis focused on changing pain-related cognitions and beliefs (HYP-CT), and a pain education control condition (ED). The analyses tested the effects of 7 potential treatment moderators. Measures of primary (pain intensity) and secondary (pain interference, depression severity) outcome domains were administered before and after the pain treatments, and potential moderators (catastrophizing, hypnotizability, and electroencephalogram (EEG)-assessed oscillation power across five bandwidths) were assessed at pre-treatment. Moderator effects were tested fitting regression analyses to pre- to post-treatment changes in the three outcome variables. The study findings, while preliminary, support the premise that pre-treatment measures of hypnotizability and EEG brain activity predict who is more (or less) likely to respond to different psychological pain treatments. If additional research replicates the findings, it may be possible to better match patients to their more individually suitable treatment, ultimately improving pain treatment outcomes. PERSPECTIVE: Pre-treatment measures of hypnotizability and EEG-assessed brain activity predicted who was more (or less) likely to respond to different psychological pain treatments. If these findings are replicated in future studies, they could inform the development of patient-treatment matching algorithms., (Copyright © 2023 United States Association for the Study of Pain, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This study examined psychosocial pain treatment moderation in a secondary analysis of a trial that compared cognitive therapy (CT), mindfulness-meditation (MM), and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) for chronic low back pain (CLBP). The Limit, Activate, and Enhance (LA&E) model of moderation provided a framework for testing a priori hypotheses. Adult participants (N = 69) with CLBP completed a pretreatment assessment of hypothesized moderators: pain catastrophizing, brain state as assessed by electroencephalogram, mindful observing, and nonreactivity. Outcomes were pain interference, characteristic pain intensity, physical function, and depression, assessed at pre- and post-treatment. Moderation analyses found significant interaction effects, specifically: 1) higher and lower baseline pain catastrophizing was associated with greater improvement in pain intensity in MM and MBCT, respectively; 2) higher baseline theta power was associated with greater improvement in depression in MBCT and interfered with response to CT; 3) lower baseline nonreactivity was associated with greater improvement in physical function in MM while higher nonreactivity was associated with greater improvement in MBCT. The findings support the possibility that different patients are more or less likely to benefit from various treatments. Theory-driven moderation research has the capacity to inform the development of patient-treatment matching algorithms to optimize outcome. PERSPECTIVE: This study presents preliminary findings from theory-driven tests of the moderators of mindfulness meditation, cognitive therapy, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for chronic low back pain. The results of such analyses may inform the understanding of for whom various evidence-based psychosocial pain treatments may engender the most meaningful benefits., (Copyright © 2019 United States Association for the Study of Pain, Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Pain acceptance is a robust predictor of adjustment to chronic pain; however, the dynamics of pain acceptance in daily life are largely unexamined. Furthermore, research on pain acceptance in those with pain and physical disability is needed. To examine pain acceptance in daily life, we collected 7 days of ecological momentary assessments of pain intensity and pain interference (5 times per day) with continuous accelerometry (physical activity) in 128 individuals with chronic pain and spinal cord injury. Multilevel modeling revealed that pain acceptance significantly moderated the momentary association between pain intensity and pain interference; those with higher pain acceptance experienced a blunted increase in interference when pain was high. Pain acceptance also moderated the association between pain intensity and physical activity; high pain acceptance was associated with an increase and low pain acceptance with a decrease in physical activity in the context of high pain. The activities engagement component of pain acceptance was a slightly more robust driver of these interaction effects; whereas activities engagement significantly moderated the association between momentary pain and pain interference as well as physical activity, pain willingness exerted a significant moderating effect on the momentary association between pain intensity and pain interference only. These findings suggest that both components contribute to the decoupling effects of pain acceptance. Task persistence did not show the same moderating effects, indicating that pain acceptance may be unique from other types of behavioral pain coping in its ability to decouple expected associations between pain intensity, pain interference, and physical activity., Perspective: In the daily lives of individuals with chronic pain and spinal cord injury, pain acceptance buffered expected increases in pain interference and decreases in physical activity in the context of high pain. These findings can inform further development of models of chronic pain adjustment and of more efficient, effective treatment approaches., (Copyright © 2016 American Pain Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: Evidence from a number of sources supports the existence of two relatively independent neurophysiological systems that underlie avoidance- and approach-related emotions, cognitions, and behavior. There is considerable overlap between 1) the emotions, cognitions, and behaviors controlled by these two systems, and 2) the known effects of chronic pain. Here we propose a 2-factor model of chronic pain on the basis of these well established 2-factor models, and discuss the implications of the model for understanding the effects of pain and mechanisms of psychological pain treatments. The model makes specific hypotheses, which are unique to the proposed model, regarding the mechanisms underlying pain's negative influence and the benefits of psychological pain treatments. The model also provides an overarching framework that could enhance outcomes by 1) broadening the assessment of factors that may be influencing pain and its effect on individual patients, and 2) suggesting that specific techniques from different treatments may be combined to better target these factors., Perspective: The 2-factor model presented in this report provides a framework for understanding the effects of psychological pain treatments, and makes specific a priori hypotheses regarding the specific mechanisms of those treatments. Clinical applications of the model have the potential for enhancing treatment outcomes., (Copyright © 2016 American Pain Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: There is a growing emphasis in the pain literature on understanding the following second-order research questions: Why do psychosocial pain treatments work? For whom do various treatments work? This critical review summarizes research that addresses the latter question and proposes a moderation model to help guide future research. A theoretical moderation framework for matching individuals to specific psychosocial pain interventions has been lacking. However, several such frameworks have been proposed in the broad psychotherapy and implementation science literature. Drawing on these theories and adapting them specifically for psychosocial pain treatment, here we propose a Limit, Activate, and Enhance model of pain treatment moderation. This model is unique in that it includes algorithms not only for matching treatments on the basis of patient weaknesses but also for directing patients to interventions that build on their strengths. Critically, this model provides a basis for specific a priori hypothesis generation, and a selection of the possible hypotheses drawn from the model are proposed and discussed. Future research considerations are presented that could refine and expand the model based on theoretically driven empirical evidence., Perspective: The Limit, Activate, and Enhance model presented here is a theoretically derived framework that provides an a priori basis for hypothesis generation regarding psychosocial pain treatment moderators. The model will advance moderation research via its unique focus on matching patients to specific treatments that (1) limit maladaptive responses, (2) activate adaptive responses, and (3) enhance treatment outcomes based on patient strengths and resources., (Copyright © 2015 American Pain Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: Mindfulness, as both a process and a practice, has received substantial research attention across a range of health conditions, including chronic pain. Previously proposed mechanisms underlying the potential health-related benefits of mindfulness and mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) are based on a strong theoretical background. However, to date, an empirically grounded, integrated theoretical model of the mechanisms of MBIs within the context of chronic pain has yet to be proposed. This is a surprising gap in the literature given the exponential growth of studies reporting on the benefits of MBIs for heterogeneous chronic pain conditions. Moreover, given the importance of determining how, and for whom, psychological interventions for pain management are effective, it is imperative that this gap in the literature be addressed. The overarching aim of the current theoretical paper was to propose an initial integrated, theoretically driven, and empirically based model of the mechanisms of MBIs for chronic pain management. Theoretical and research implications of the model are discussed. The theoretical considerations proposed herein can be used to help organize and guide future research that will identify the mechanisms underlying the benefits of mindfulness-based treatments, and perhaps psychosocial treatments more broadly, for chronic pain management., Perspective: This focus article presents an initial framework for an empirically based, theoretical model of the mechanisms of MBIs for chronic pain management. Implications of the framework for refining theory and for future research are addressed., (Copyright © 2014 American Pain Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: Sex differences in pain are frequently reported in the literature. However, less is known about possible sex differences in the experience of pain secondary to a disability. The current study explored these issues in persons with limb loss (n = 335, 72% men) who were recruited as part of a postal survey. Participants provided ratings of phantom limb pain (PLP), residual limb pain (RLP), and general pain intensity. Participants also completed measures of pain-related interference, catastrophizing, coping, and beliefs. Results indicated that a greater proportion of males than females (86% vs 77%, respectively) reported the presence of PLP; however, this difference was no longer prominent when cause of limb loss was controlled. No sex differences were found in the presence of RLP, or in average intensity ratings of PLP or RLP. In contrast, females reported greater overall average pain intensity and interference than males. Females also endorsed significantly greater catastrophizing, use of certain pain-coping strategies, and beliefs related to several aspects of pain. This study did not find prominent sex differences in pain specific to limb loss. However, several sex differences in the overall biopsychosocial experience of pain did emerge that are consistent with the broader literature., Perspective: The current study contributes to the literature on sex differences in the experience of pain. Although males and females with limb loss did not significantly differ in their disability-specific pain, sex differences in their broader experience of pain were significant and are worthy of future clinical and empirical attention., (Copyright 2010 American Pain Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: This study describes further development of the Multidimensional Pain Readiness to Change Questionnaire (MPRCQ2), a measure of readiness to adopt a variety of pain management and coping strategies commonly taught in multidisciplinary treatment programs. Clinical samples were recruited from a Fibromyalgia Day Program (n = 139) and an Arthritis Day Program (n = 51) as well as 2 survey samples with pain resulting from either a spinal cord injury (n = 127) or an amputation (n = 120). The results indicate preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the MPRCQ2. The MPRCQ2 may be helpful in future research investigating the relationship between readiness to change pain-related coping and adoption of coping behaviors and adjustment to chronic pain., Perspective: This study describes the development of a revised version of the MPRCQ, the MPRCQ2, in 4 patient samples. The results support the reliability and validity of the MPRCQ2 in individuals with fibromyalgia syndrome, arthritis, acquired amputation, and spinal cord injury and improve on some aspects of the instrument.

Unlabelled: Although previous research suggests that preamputation pain is a risk factor for pain after amputation, little is known about the association between acute postsurgical pain and chronic amputation-related pain. The current prospective study examined the associations of preamputation pain and acute postamputation pain with chronic amputation-related pain. The sample consisted of patients with lower limb amputation (N = 57) who provided both preamputation and postamputation data during a 2-year study period. Preamputation pain intensity and duration were assessed before amputation; acute phantom limb pain (PLP) and residual limb pain (RLP) intensity were assessed on postsurgical days 4 and 5. Acute PLP intensity was the only significant independent predictor of chronic PLP intensity at 6 and 12 months after amputation, whereas preamputation pain intensity was the only significant predictor of chronic PLP intensity at 24 months. Similarly, acute RLP was found to be the best overall predictor of chronic RLP. Other variables (age, gender, level and etiology of amputation, amount of postsurgical pain medication, and duration of preamputation pain) were not associated with chronic pain. These results suggest that higher levels of pain either before or soon after amputation might help to identify individuals at greatest risk for chronic pain problems and most in need of early, intensive pain interventions., Perspective: This study suggests that both preamputation pain and acute pain soon after amputation might be associated with bothersome chronic pain. The results support further research on acute pain mechanisms and the effectiveness of early interventions aimed at preventing or managing amputation-related pain.