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Previous research indicates that employee justice perceptions are positively related to leader-member exchange (LMX). We examined collectivism as a moderator of this relationship. We hypothesized that because maintaining harmonious relationships is important for collectivists, and because protecting their individual identities is not a priority, there is a weaker relationship between interactional and distributive justice perceptions and LMX for individuals high in collectivism. Instead of engaging in behaviors that would lower the quality of their LMX relationships, collectivists are more likely to use soft influence tactics, specifically ingratiation, as a response to perceived unfairness. Thus, we expected a stronger relationship between justice perceptions and ingratiation for those high in collectivism. In a sample of textile-manufacturing employees in Istanbul, Turkey, we found that interactional justice had a weaker positive relationship with LMX for individuals high in collectivism. In addition, distributive justice had a nonsignificant relationship with LMX for those high in collectivism, whereas there was a positive relationship for those low in collectivism. Finally, for collectivists there was a negative relationship between interactional justice perceptions and frequency of ingratiation, suggesting that collectivists may use more subtle mechanisms when responding to interactional unfairness. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Why do managers employ certain tactics when they try to influence others? This study proposes and tests theoretical linkages between the five-factor model of personality and managers' upward influence tactic strategies. Longitudinal data from 189 managers at 140 different organizations confirmed that managers scoring high on extraversion were more likely to use inspirational appeal and ingratiation; those scoring high on openness were less likely to use coalitions; those scoring high on emotional stability were more likely to use rational persuasion and less likely to use inspirational appeal; those scoring high on agreeableness were less likely to use legitimization or pressure; and those scoring high on conscientiousness were more likely to use rational appeal. Results also confirmed that managers' upward influence tactic strategies depended on the leadership style of their target (their supervisor). Managers were more likely to use consultation and inspirational appeal tactics when their supervisor was a transformational leader, but were more likely to use exchange, coalition, legitimization, and pressure tactics when their supervisor displayed a laissez-faire leadership style. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Recent research on influence tactics has focused on the benefits that accrue as a result of using such tactics. The current study utilizes meta-analytic techniques to estimate the true population correlations between various influence tactics and work-related outcomes. Results indicate that ingratiation and rationality have positive effects on work outcomes. Additional analyses suggest that these and other influence tactics have significant effects in certain situations and on specific work outcomes. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study investigates the complexities involved in the relationships between perceptions of politics and work outcomes by examining the effects of political behavior on that relationship. More specifically, we suggest that political behavior may serve as a form of control or as a mechanism for coping with highly political organizational environments perceived by individuals to be aversive. As such, we propose moderating roles of self-promotion and ingratiation on the relationships between perceptions of politics and the work outcomes of satisfaction with job in general, satisfaction with supervision, and intent to leave. It was hypothesized that increased exercise of self-promotion and ingratiation behaviors would mitigate the negative effects of perceptions of organizational politics on those specific outcomes. Hypotheses were supported for the proposed relationships between self-promotion and two of the work outcomes: satisfaction with supervision and intent to leave. Significant effects were also found for ingratiation; however, they were opposite to those proposed for the perceptions of organizational politics–intent to leave relationship. Implications of results and areas for future research are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Researchers have noted that upward influence tactics are often used in varying patterns and combinations (e.g. Yukl and Falbe, 1990). This study investigated whether influence strategies representing hard, soft, or rational approaches to influence behavior would emerge in relation to upward influence tactics of assertiveness, rationality, coalition, upward appeal, ingratiation, and exchange. Hypotheses were offered concerning the relations of selected demographic, individual difference, relational, and opportunity factors to these strategies. The 225 participants were full-time employees of a national non-profit organization. Second-order factor analysis provided some support for the dimensionalization of upward influence tactics as representing hard, soft, and rational strategies. Each strategy was related to a unique set of predictors. The results suggest a higher level of complexity for influence strategies than previously expected. The implications of this study, as well as fruitful areas for future research, are discussed. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A type of organizational reward system based on personal power is described and partially tested. The theory, developed from observations of Hungarian organizations, is grounded in theories of procedural justice and learned helplessness. Person-based organizational reward systems are characterized by highly valued rewards combined with personalistic criteria for reward distribution. Such organizational reward systems were hypothesized to lead to employee perceptions of organizational unfairness; negative evaluations of others; anxiety; and perceptions of self, collegial and organizational inefficacy. These hypotheses were supported in tests in a sample of three Hungarian state-owned organizations classified as having person-based systems and five non-person-based organizations (two Hungarian privately-owned companies, one American state-owned and two American privately-owned organizations). In addition, several behavioral effects of person-based reward systems were proposed: they foster bargaining behavior, withholding of information, avoidance of collaborative tasks, ingratiation and noncompliance with rules.

The influx of women into the labour force and the barriers to their upward mobility stimulated an interest in the impact of sex on performance evaluation (Terborg 1977. For reviews of that literature, see Brown, 1979; Nieva and Gutek, 1981). The findings are contradictory. Some studies report that different criteria are used to evaluate the performance of men and women and that each sex is expected to behave in stereotypically sex-role congruent ways (Deaux and Taynor, 1973; Rosen and Jerdee, 1973; Petty and Lee, 1975; Petty and Miles, 1976; Bartol and Butterfield, 1976; Haccoun, Haccoun and Sallay, 1978; Rice, Bender and Vitters, 1980; Jago and Vroom, 1982). Other studies, however, report no such sex bias and suggest that in achievement situations the same standards are used to evaluate the performance of men and women (Butterfield and Bartol, 1977; Dipboye and Wiley, 1977; Lee and Alvares, 1977; Petty and Bruning, 1980; Butterfield and Powell, 1981; Stitt, Price and Kipnis 1983; Izraeli and Izraeli, 1985). Most studies to date, have focused on the relationship between sex and some set of contrasting leadership behaviours such as initiation of structure (task oriented) and consideration (people oriented) or autocratic and participative behaviour. A key leadership issue for women is the access to and use of power and influence, variables generally associated with masculinity (Kanter, 1977). We found only two studies (Johnson, 1976; Wiley and Eskilson 1982) which examined the effects of sex on the evaluation of influence tactics. Johnson (1976) found that respondents expected men and women to exercise power differently. Direct influence tactics such as coercion, legitimate, expert and informational power were significantly more expected of males than of females but for the expected 'female' tactics such as ingratiation and other forms of indirect influence, there was no significant sex difference. Johnson (1976, pp. 108-9) concludes that '... it's acceptable that only males will use the strong aggressive type of power, yet males are allowed to use the other bases. Females, however, are limited in our society's expectations to the less powerful base'. Indirect (manipulative) tactics are a weaker base because the influencer, acting as if the person on the receiving end is not aware of the influence (Tedeschi, 1972), is less likely to be perceived as a powerful person than is he or she whose ability to influence is known (Michner, Lawler and Bacharach, 1973). Using a similar design to that employed in the present study, Wiley and Eskilson (1982), like Johnson, found an interaction effect for sex of influencer and influence