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Background: Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) is a peripheral nerve disorder characterised by weakness and sensory loss. We assessed the neonatal Fc receptor inhibitor rozanolixizumab for CIDP management., Methods: CIDP01 (NCT03861481) was a randomised, subject-blind, investigator-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2a study. Adults with definite or probable CIDP receiving subcutaneous or intravenous immunoglobulin maintenance therapy were randomised 1:1 to 12 once-weekly subcutaneous infusions of rozanolixizumab 10 mg/kg or placebo, stratified according to previous immunoglobulin administration route. Investigators administering treatment and assessing efficacy, and patients, were blinded. The primary outcome was a change from baseline (CFB) to day 85 in inflammatory Rasch-built Overall Disability Scale (iRODS) score. Eligible patients who completed CIDP01 entered the open-label extension CIDP04 (NCT04051944)., Results: In CIDP01, between 26 March 2019 and 31 March 2021, 34 patients were randomised to rozanolixizumab or placebo (17 (50%) each). No significant difference in CFB to day 85 in iRODS centile score was observed between rozanolixizumab (least squares mean 2.0 (SE 3.2)) and placebo (3.4 (2.6); difference -1.5 (90% CI -7.5 to 4.5)). Overall, 14 (82%) patients receiving rozanolixizumab and 13 (76%) receiving placebo experienced a treatment-emergent adverse event during the treatment period. Across CIDP01 and CIDP04, rozanolixizumab was well tolerated over up to 614 days; no clinically meaningful efficacy results were seen. No deaths occurred., Conclusions: Rozanolixizumab did not show efficacy in patients with CIDP in this study, although this could be due to a relatively high placebo stability rate. Rozanolixizumab was well tolerated over medium-to-long-term weekly use, with an acceptable safety profile., Competing Interests: Competing interests: LQ received research grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III–Ministry of Economy and Innovation (Spain), CIBERER, GBS-CIDP Foundation International, Grifols, Roche and UCB Pharma; provided expert testimony to Annexon, argenx, Avilar Therapeutics, CSL Behring, Johnson and Johnson, Lundbeck, Lumanity, Merck, Novartis, Octapharma, Roche, Takeda, Sanofi Genzyme and UCB Pharma; serves on the Clinical Trial Steering Committee for Sanofi Genzyme. JDS, TD, TL and THR: report no disclosures relevant to the manuscript. MR served as a consultant and received research support from Alexion and Allergan; received research support from Anelixis Therapeutics, Apellis Pharmaceuticals, Biohaven, Catalyst, MediciNova, Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Momenta (now Johnson and Johnson), Orion, Ra Pharmaceuticals (now UCB Pharma), Seikagaku, Shire Takeda, UCB Pharma and Viela Bio (now Horizon Therapeutics). H-PH received honoraria for serving on steering and data monitoring committees of Bayer Healthcare, Biogen, BMS Celgene, GeNeuro, Merck, Novartis, Octapharma, Roche, TG Therapeutics and UCB Pharma. PK was an employee and shareholder of UCB Pharma during the conduct of the study but is now retired. SS is an employee and shareholder of UCB Pharma. DM was a contractor employed by UCB Pharma during the conduct of this study, but is currently employed by IQVIA. AB was an employee and shareholder of UCB Pharma during the conduct of the study but is currently employed at Otsuka Pharmaceutical Commercialization and Development. A-OC and UM are employees and shareholders of UCB Pharma. FE reports grants from ZonMw (Dutch Governmental Agency) and Prinses Beatrix Spierfonds; he also reports grants from CSL Behring, the GBS-CIDP Foundation, Grifols, Kedrion, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company and Terumo BCT, all outside the submitted work; grants were paid to his institution and were used for investigator-initiated studies within INCbase, an international CIDP registry; in addition, he has received consultancy fees from CSL Behring, Grifols and UCB Pharma, paid to his institution., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: To evaluate the validity, reliability, responsiveness and meaningful change threshold of the Inclusion Body Myositis (IBM) Functional Rating Scale (FRS)., Methods: Data from a large 20-month multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in IBM were used. Convergent validity was tested using Spearman correlation with other health outcomes. Discriminant (known groups) validity was assessed using standardised effect sizes (SES). Internal consistency was tested using Cronbach's alpha. Intrarater reliability in stable patients and equivalence of face-to-face and telephone administration were tested using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and Bland-Altman plots. Responsiveness was assessed using standardised response mean (SRM). A receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve anchor-based approach was used to determine clinically meaningful IBMFRS change., Results: Among the 150 patients, mean (SD) IBMFRS total score was 27.4 (4.6). Convergent validity was supported by medium to large correlations (r s modulus: 0.42-0.79) and discriminant validity by moderate to large group differences (SES=0.51-1.59). Internal consistency was adequate (overall Cronbach's alpha: 0.79). Test-retest reliability (ICCs=0.84-0.87) and reliability of telephone versus face-to-face administration (ICCs=0.93-0.95) were excellent, with Bland-Altman plots showing good agreement. Responsiveness in the worsened group defined by various external constructs was large at both 12 (SRM=-0.76 to -1.49) and 20 months (SRM=-1.12 to -1.57). In ROC curve analysis, a drop in at least two IBMFRS total score points was shown to represent a meaningful decline., Conclusions: When administered by trained raters, the IBMFRS is a reliable, valid and responsive tool that can be used to evaluate the impact of IBM and its treatment on physical function, with a 2-point reduction representing meaningful decline., Trial Registration Number: NCT02753530., Competing Interests: Competing interests: SS is supported by a UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology & Cleveland Clinic London MPhil/PhD Neuroscience Fellowship. TS, HD, SR, JR, LL-P and SH are employees of Clinical Outcomes Solutions, a health research consultancy that was paid to conduct the measurement properties analyses reported in this study. CG was an employee of Orphazyme A/S, the pharmaceutical company that funded the measurement properties analyses reported in this study. LH has no disclosures to report. RJB has received funding from the FDA Office Orphan Products Development grant for his role in the arimoclomol trial. MGH receives research funding from the Medical Research Council UK and has previously acted as a consultant for Novartis and for Orphazyme A/S. MMD serves or recently served as a consultant for Abata/Third Rock, Abcuro, Amicus, ArgenX, Astellas, Cabaletta Bio, Catalyst, CNSA, Covance/Labcorp, CSL-Behring, Dianthus, Horizon, EMD Serono/Merck, Ig Society, Janssen, Medlink, Octapharma, Priovant, Sanofi Genzyme, Shire Takeda, TACT/Treat NMD, UCB Biopharma, Valenza Bio and Wolters Kluwer Health/UpToDate; MMD also received research grants or contracts or educational grants from Alexion/AstraZeneca, Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Amicus, Argenx, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Catalyst, CSL-Behring, FDA/OOPD, GlaxoSmithKline, Genentech, Grifols, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, MDA, NIH, Novartis, Octapharma, Orphazyme, Ra Pharma/UCB, Sanofi Genzyme, Sarepta Therapeutics, Shire Takeda, Spark Therapeutics, The Myositis Association, and UCB Biopharma/RaPharma. PMM has received honoraria from Abbvie, BMS, Celgene, Eli Lilly, Galapagos, Janssen, MSD, Novartis, Orphazyme Pfizer, Roche and UCB., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: An oral sodium phenylbutyrate and taurursodiol combination (PB and TURSO) significantly reduced functional decline in people living with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in the CENTAUR trial. Biomarkers linking clinical therapeutic effect with biological changes are of high interest in ALS. We performed analyses of neuroinflammatory biomarkers associated with ALS in the literature, including YKL-40 (also known as chitinase-3-like protein 1), chitinase 1 (CHIT1) and C reactive protein (CRP), in plasma samples collected in CENTAUR., Methods: Log10-transformed plasma biomarker measurements were analysed using a linear mixed-effects model. Correlation between paired biomarker concentrations and ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised (ALSFRS-R) total scores was assessed via Pearson correlation coefficients., Results: By week 24, geometric least squares mean YKL-40 plasma concentration decreased by approximately 20% (p=0.008) and CRP by 30% (p=0.048) in the PB and TURSO versus placebo group. YKL-40 (r of -0.21; p<0.0001) and CRP (r of -0.19; p=0.0002) concentration correlated with ALSFRS-R total score. CHIT1 levels were not significantly different between groups., Conclusions: YKL-40 and CRP plasma levels were significantly reduced in participants with ALS receiving PB and TURSO in CENTAUR and correlated with disease progression. These findings suggest YKL-40 and CRP could be treatment-sensitive biomarkers in ALS, pending further confirmatory studies., Trial Registration Number: https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03127514., Competing Interests: Competing interests: RB reports receiving laboratory supplies from nVector for the biomarker assays used in these analyses; consulting fees from MT Pharma, RRD International, BrainStorm and Cell Therapeutics unrelated to this manuscript; consulting fees from Amylyx Pharmaceuticals, Inc., related to this manuscript; a pending patent with nVector; and stock options in nVector, AcuraStem and Aural Analytics. JA reports stock options in nVector. LM, JC and JT are full-time employees of and have stock option ownership in Amylyx. MC reports consulting fees from Lilly, Immunity Pharm Ltd, Orion, Cytokinetics, Wave Life Sciences, Takeda, Avexis, Biogen, Helixsmith, Sunovian Pharmaceuticals Inc., Disarm, ALSpharma, RRD International, Transposon, QurAlis, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, AB Science, Locust Walk, NeuroSense Therapeutics, Faze Medicines, Arrowhead Pharmaceuticals, VectorY Therapeutics, Servier, Eledon Pharmaceuticals, Pasithea Therapeutics and Denali Therapeutics and stock in Praxis. SP reports research grants from Amylyx related to this manuscript; research grants from the National Institutes of Health, Alector Therapeutics, Biohaven, Cytokinetics, Anelixis Pharmaceuticals, Revalesio Corporation, UCB, Clene, Prilenia, Seelos Therapeutics, Calico and Denali Therapeutics unrelated to this manuscript; consulting fees from Frequency Therapeutics, SOLA Pharmaceuticals, Stealth BioTherapeutics, Orion, Roche, Janssen, Arrowhead and Amylyx; honoraria from Medscape; and board membership in the Association of Academic Physiatrists., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: To mimic as closely as possible a randomised controlled trial (RCT) and calibrate the real-world evidence (RWE) studies against a known treatment effect would be helpful to understand if RWE can support causal conclusions in selected circumstances. The aim was to emulate the TRANSFORMS trial comparing Fingolimod (FTY) versus intramuscular interferon β-1a (IFN) using observational data., Methods: We extracted from the MSBase registry all the patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) collected in the period 2011-2021 who received IFN or FTY (0.5 mg) and with the same inclusion and exclusion criteria of the TRANSFORMS RCT. The primary endpoint was the annualised relapse rate (ARR) over 12 months. Patients were 1:1 propensity-score (PS) matched. Relapse-rate ratio (RR) was calculated by mean of a negative binomial regression., Results: A total of 4376 patients with RRMS (1140 in IFN and 3236 in FTY) were selected. After PS, 856 patients in each group were matched. The ARR was 0.45 in IFN and 0.25 in FTY with a significant difference between the two groups (RR: 0.55, 95% CI: 0.45 to 0.68; p<0.001). The result of the emulation was very similar and fell within the 95% CI of that observed in the RCT (RR: 0.49, 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.64; p<0.001) with a standardised difference of 0.66 (p=0.51)., Conclusions: By applying the same inclusion and exclusion criteria used in the RCT and employing appropriate methodology, we successfully replicated the RCT results with only minor discrepancies. Also, even if the confounding bias cannot be fully eliminated, conducting a rigorous target trial emulation could still yield valuable insights for comparative effectiveness research., Competing Interests: Competing interests: MP, SO, BY, RK, AYS have nothing to disclose; AS received speaker’s honoraria from Chiesi and grant from MSBase outside from this work. TK served on scientific advisory boards for BMS, Roche, Janssen, Sanofi Genzyme, Novartis, Merck and Biogen, steering committee for Brain Atrophy Initiative by Sanofi Genzyme, received conference travel support and/or speaker honoraria from WebMD Global, Eisai, Novartis, Biogen, Sanofi-Genzyme, Teva, BioCSL and Merck and received research or educational event support from Biogen, Novartis, Genzyme, Roche, Celgene and Merck. DH received speaker honoraria and consulting fees from Biogen, Merck, Teva, Roche, Sanofi Genzyme, and Novartis, as well as support for research activities from Biogen and Czech Minsitry of Education [project Progres Q27/LF1]. EKH received honoraria/research support from Biogen, Merck Serono, Novars, Roche, and Teva; has been member of advisory boards for Actelion, Biogen, Celgene, Merck Serono, Novars, and Sanofi Genzyme; has been supported by the Czech Ministry of Educaon research project PROGRES Q27/LF1. RA received honoraria as a speaker and for serving on scientific advisory boards from Bayer, Biogen, GSK, Merck, Novartis, Roche and Sanofi-Genzyme. JK received speaker fees, research support, travel support, and/or advisory boards Swiss Multiple Sclerosis Society, SNSF, University of Basel, Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Alliance, Bayer, Biogen, Celgene, Merck, Novartis, Octave Bioscience, Roche, Sanofi. FP served an advisory board Alexion, Almirall, Bayer, Biogen, Bristol Meyers&Squibb, Merck, Novartis and Roche; he also received personal fee for speaking activities; he also received research grants by Biogen, Merck, Roche, FISM, Reload Onlus and MIUR Ministero Italiano della Ricerca e della Università. GI received speaking honoraria from Biogen, Novartis, Sanofi, Merck, Roche, Almirall and Teva. SJK received compensation for scientific advisory board activity from Merck and Roche and for serving on IDMC for Biogen. SE received speaker honoraria and consultant fees from Biogen Idec, Novartis, Merck, Bayer, Sanofi Genzyme, Roche and Teva. PG has served in advisory boards for Novartis, EMD Serono, Roche, Biogen idec, Sanofi Genzyme, Pendopharm and has received grant support from Genzyme and Roche, has received research grants for his institution from Biogen idec, Sanofi Genzyme, EMD Serono. PD served on editorial boards and has been supported to attend meetings by EMD, Biogen, Novartis, Genzyme, and TEVA Neuroscience. He holds grants from the CIHR and the MS Society of Canada and has received funding for investigator-initiated trials from Biogen, Novartis, and Genzyme. HB has received institutional (Monash University) funding from Biogen, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Merck, Alexion, CSL, and Novartis; has carried out contracted research for Novartis, Merck, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd and Biogen; has taken part in speakers’ bureaus for Biogen, Genzyme, UCB, Novartis, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd and Merck; has received personal compensation from Oxford Health Policy Forum for the Brain Health Steering Committee. AV served on advisory boards for Novartis, Biogen, Merck and Roche and NervGen. She received unrestricted research grants from Novartis, Biogen, Merck and Roche. She is currently a co-Principal investigator on a co-sponsored observational study with Roche, evaluating a Roche-developed smartphone app, Floodlight-MS. She has received speaker’s honoraria and travel support from Novartis, Roche, Biogen and Merck. She serves as the Chief operating Officer of the MSBase Foundation (not for profit). Her primary research support is from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and MS Research Australia. MPS received consulting fees from Roche, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Sanofi, Celgene, Immunic, Geneuro, GSK, Medday; received payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers’ bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Roche, Biogen Merck, Novartis, Sanofi, Celgene; participated on a Data Safety Monitoring Board or Advisory Board for Roche, Sanofi, Novartis, Merck., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Fatigue is a disabling symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS). The lack of effective therapeutics has promoted the development of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)-based fatigue management programmes. However, their efficacy does not sustain over time. We proposed to test the long-term effectiveness of a 6-week fatigue programme supplemented with four booster sessions ('FACETS+') in patients with relapsing remitting MS (RRMS) and fatigue., Methods: This multicentre, randomised, controlled, open-label, parallel-group trial versus standard care enrolled patients with RRMS and fatigue. Participants were randomised to either FACETS+ plus standard care or standard care alone. The primary outcome measure was fatigue impact (Modified Fatigue Impact Scale (MFIS) at 12 months) based on intention-to-treat analyses., Results: From May 2017 to September 2020, 162 patients were screened; 105 were randomly assigned to FACETS+ (n=57) or standard care (n=48) and 88 completed the primary outcome assessment for the MFIS. At month 12, participants showed improved MFIS compared with baseline in the intervention group (mean difference (MD)=14.0 points; (95% CI 6.45 to 21.5)) and the control group (MD=6.1 points; (95% CI -0.30 to 12.5)) with a significant between-group difference in favour of the intervention group (adjusted MD=7.89 points; (95% CI 1.26 to 14.52), standardised effect size=0.52, p=0.021). No trial-related serious adverse events were reported., Conclusions: A 6-week CBT-based programme with four booster sessions is superior to standard care alone to treat MS-related fatigue in the long term (12 months follow-up). The results support the use of the FACETS+ programme for the treatment of MS-related fatigue., Trial Registration Number: NCT03758820., Competing Interests: Competing interests: OH has competing interests with Bayer Schering, Merck, Teva, Genzyme, Novartis and BiogenIdec (support for attending meeting or travel, and consulting fees). The other authors have no competing interests., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) is a disabling long-term condition of unknown cause. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) published a guideline in 2021 that highlighted the seriousness of the condition, but also recommended that graded exercise therapy (GET) should not be used and cognitive-behavioural therapy should only be used to manage symptoms and reduce distress, not to aid recovery. This U-turn in recommendations from the previous 2007 guideline is controversial.We suggest that the controversy stems from anomalies in both processing and interpretation of the evidence by the NICE committee. The committee: (1) created a new definition of CFS/ME, which 'downgraded' the certainty of trial evidence; (2) omitted data from standard trial end points used to assess efficacy; (3) discounted trial data when assessing treatment harm in favour of lower quality surveys and qualitative studies; (4) minimised the importance of fatigue as an outcome; (5) did not use accepted practices to synthesise trial evidence adequately using GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations trial evidence); (6) interpreted GET as mandating fixed increments of change when trials defined it as collaborative, negotiated and symptom dependent; (7) deviated from NICE recommendations of rehabilitation for related conditions, such as chronic primary pain and (8) recommended an energy management approach in the absence of supportive research evidence.We conclude that the dissonance between this and the previous guideline was the result of deviating from usual scientific standards of the NICE process. The consequences of this are that patients may be denied helpful treatments and therefore risk persistent ill health and disability., Competing Interests: Competing interests: PW was a coauthor of trials of both graded exercise therapy and cognitive behaviour therapy, including the PACE trial, is a trustee of the Voluntary Hospital of St Bartholomew’s Charity, was a previous member of Independent Medical Experts Group, which advises the UK MoD on its Armed Forces Compensation Scheme, and receives personal consultancy fees from Swiss Re reinsurance company. BA was a centre leader in the PACE trial. AJC reports grants from NIHR (Physio 4 FMD) and CSO (Long Covid Cognitive phenotyping). AJC is a paid associate editor of JNNP and unpaid president elect of the Functional Neurological Disorders Society (FNDS), he gives expert testimony in court on a range of neuropsychiatric topics on a 50% claimant 50%: defender basis. He is the author of a self-help book based on CBT principles for treatment of FND (no royalties taken). DJC declares grants from Pfizer and Aptinyx; consulting fees from AbbVie, Allergan Sales, Heron Therapeutics, Eli Lilly and Company, Aptinyx, H. Lundbeck A/S, Neumentum, Pfizer, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Samumed, Swing Therapeutics, Tonix Pharmaceuticals, Virios Therapeutics. Fees from Fasken Martineau DuMoulin, Kellogg, Hansen, Todd, Figel & Frederick, PLLC, Marks & Clerk Law, Nix Patterson, Pfizer, Zuber Lawler & Del Duca. JC reports consulting fees from Bial, and honoraria from Janssen, Bial and Brittania. BAD reports NIH R13 infrastructure grant for 2022 Functional Neurological Disorders Society meeting in Boston. TC was co-investigator of several trials of behavioural interventions for CFS/ME, including the PACE trial, has received royalties for several books and book chapters on CFS/ME and received payments for workshops on CBT for CFS/ME. BAD is on the board of directors of the FNDS and receives royalties from Oxford University Press for 'Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures: Towards the Integration of Care'. She does paid consultancy for Bioserenity (EEG interpretations) and Best Doctors (clinical consultations). She received support to attend the American Epilepsy Society Board of Directors meeting in 2021. She chairs the data safety monitoring board of the DSMB NIH-ESETT trial 2015–2019, and received travel expenses to attend the American Epilepsy Society Board of Directors FNDS meeting and Epilepsy Foundation of New England PAB. MJE reports royalties from Oxford University Press for the book 'The Oxford Specialist Handbook of Movement Disorders', consulting fees from UCB (personal) and Merz Pharma (to his institution), honoraria from the International Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorder Society, medicolegal fees for personal injury and clinical negligence cases, support to attend meetings from the FNDS, leadership roles in International Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorder Society and Dystonia UK, and is a medical board member of FND Action and FND Hope, and board member of the FNDS. JE was the President of the Faculty of Sport and Exercise Medicine at the time of the Royal College of Physicians’ review of this guideline and submitted comments on behalf of the Faculty. He is Medical Director of a company which occasionally manages patients with CFS/ME. AJE has received grant support from the NIH and the Michael J Fox Foundation, personal compensation as a consultant/scientific advisory board member for Neuroderm, Neurocrine, Amneal, Acadia, Acorda, Bexion, Kyowa Kirin, Sunovion, Supernus (formerly, USWorldMeds), Avion Pharmaceuticals, and Herantis Pharma, and publishing royalties from Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Cambridge University Press, and Springer. He received an honorarium from Avion. He cofounded REGAIN Therapeutics (a biotech start-up developing nonaggregating peptide analogues as replacement therapies for neurodegenerative diseases) and is co-owner of a patent that covers synthetic soluble nonaggregating peptide analogues as replacement treatments in proteinopathies. PF declares consulting fees from FADL Forlag, Munksgaard, Ny Nordisk Forlag and Arnold Busk, an honorarium from Lundbeck Pharma,and medicolegal fees from Retslægerådet. SF was a co-founding member of the GRADE working group and a member of the GRADE guidance group. She has been engaged in debates related to the evidence regarding CFS/ME for many years from a biopsychosocial perspective. PGlasziou declares an NHMRC Investigator Award: 'Neglected Problems in Health Care' supporting his salary; grants from the National Heart Foundation, Commonwealth Department of Health and WHO for work unconnected to this paper, and is a board member (unpaid) for Therapeutic Guidelines. IH has an NRS Fellowship from CSO, has been paid for medicolegal consultations, receives travel expenses for attending medical conferences and one honorarium from Bristol NHS Neurology Department, and is on the board of Fowler’s syndrome UK Charity. WH was a member of the 2007 NICE Guideline Development Group, and is Chief Medical Officer of LV=, an insurance company. PH was part of the steering committee of the German clinical practice guideline on functional somatic symptoms. MH reports fees for medicolegal expert court reports (none concern CFS/ME). HK reports grants from ZonMw, Stichting NKCV, MS Research, and Dutch Cancer Society, was coauthor of trials of cognitive behaviour therapy, reports royalties for a published treatment manual for CBT for fatigue in CFS/ME, and an honorarium for a lecture from Intercept Pharma Deutschland. A Lehn is an unpaid director of the FNDS. AL reports grants for investigator initiated research grants from Gilead Sciences, AbbVie and Sequiris. AM has been on a trial steering committee for a trial of graded exercise therapy, was formerly the Chair of the British Association for CFS and ME (BACME) and Principal Medical Adviser for Action for ME. IM has been paid honoraria by The@WorkPartnership for lectures on the occupational health management approach to managing long-term conditions (including CFS/ME) in the workplace, is the Academic Dean of the Faculty of Occupational Medicine and commented on the NICE guidelines on the management of CFS/ME on behalf of the Faculty. MM received an honorarium for a lecture in 2020 for ViiV, received financial support to attend the EACS 2021 conference (virtual) and ViiV EACS 2019 conference, and was a centre co-lead for the PACE trial. IN reports research grants received from NIHR and MRC to conduct clinical trials on complex interventions, not specific to CFS/ME, has served on several Data Safety Committee as an independent member for trials on complex interventions, one of which related to CFS/ME, and is Co-Chair of Wellcome Trust/Indian Alliance DBT Team Science Grant and Clinical and Public Health Research Centers Grants Committee. DLP reports grants from the National Institutes of Health and Sidney R. Baer Jr. Foundation for work unrelated to this paper, has received honoraria for continuing medical education lectures at Harvard Medical School and the American Academy of Neurology, royalties from Springer Nature for a textbook on Functional Movement Disorder, is a member of the Board of Directors of the FNDS, senior (paid) editor of Brain and Behavior and is an Editorial Board Member of Epilepsy & Behavior. WP reports occasional paid lectures pertaining to FND (most payments donated to charity), has received fees for expert testimony in court on a range of neurological topics including FND, is a board member of FND Hope and FND Action, and is on the board of directors of the BNPA. MR reports a grant from Elsevier, royalties from Oxford University Press, honoraria from UCB Pharma, LivaNova, Eisai, and Angellini and sits on a data safety monitoring board for IqVia Medtech. WR reports grants from the German Research Foundation, royalties from books and fees for German legal opinions. AS was a member of the 2007 NICE Guideline Development Group for CFS/ME (CG53)]. TS reports being a member of the Board of Directors and Membership and Liaisons Committee of the FNDS and being a member of the Functional Movement Disorders Study Group (Movement Disorders Society). MS was a co-principal investigator for the PACE trial and has led a trial of CBT for CFS/ME. He is current President of the European Association of Psychosomatic Medicine Current (unpaid) and was the previous President of the Academy of Consultation Liaison Psychiatry (unpaid). BS is a Council Member of the Association of British Neurologists and Medical Expert Committee member of FND Hope UK. JS reports grants from Scottish Government and NIHR; royalties from UptoDate, the Donald Baxter Lecture Award, Montreal, titled 'Multiple Sclerosis at the limits', personal fees from expert witness work, Secretary FNDS, Medical Advisor FND Hope, Medical Advisor FND Action, running a self-help website for patients with FND. DTW reports consulting fees for expert opinions on patients in a prolonged disorder of consciousness, fees for occasional medicolegal and personal injury cases, member of NIHR grant Programme Supervisory Committee of a trial of vocational rehabilitation after head injury, Deputy Secretary to British Society of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine (unpaid) and is employed at a nursing home where he sees 2-3 patients with functional disorders. SCW reports honoraria from two talks on psychological impacts of COVID to Swiss Re during the pandemic, but neither covered CFS nor Long Covid. He is on the Board of the ESRC and am also a member of the Judicial Appointments Commission for which he receives renumeration. None are relevant to this paper. SCW is also on the Board of the South London and Maudsley Foundation NHS Trust for which he receives no renumeration. SCW reports receiving grants to research CFS and has published over 150 papers on this subject, including being an author on several RCTs relevant to this submission, but none within the last 36 months. VW is Head of the Collaborative on Fatigue Following Infection (COFFI) (unpaid). AZ reports fees for expert witness medicolegal reports, but not in cases specifically focused on CFS/ME. No other authors declared any relevant competing interests., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To investigate relationships between serum neurofilament light chain (sNfL), ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase L1 (sUCHL1), tau (sTau) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (sGFAP) levels and disease activity/disability in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), and the effects of inebilizumab on these biomarkers in N-MOmentum., Methods: N-MOmentum randomised participants to receive inebilizumab or placebo with a randomised controlled period (RCP) of 28 weeks and an open-label follow-up period of ≥2 years. The sNfL, sUCHL1, sTau and sGFAP were measured using single-molecule arrays in 1260 scheduled and attack-related samples from N-MOmentum participants (immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies to aquaporin-4-positive, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-IgG-positive or double autoantibody-negative) and two control groups (healthy donors and patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis)., Results: The concentration of all four biomarkers increased during NMOSD attacks. At attack, sNfL had the strongest correlation with disability worsening during attacks (Spearman R 2 =0.40; p=0.01) and prediction of disability worsening after attacks (sNfL cut-off 32 pg/mL; area under the curve 0.71 (95% CI 0.51 to 0.89); p=0.02), but only sGFAP predicted upcoming attacks. At RCP end, fewer inebilizumab-treated than placebo-treated participants had sNfL>16 pg/mL (22% vs 45%; OR 0.36 (95% CI 0.17 to 0.76); p=0.004)., Conclusions: Compared with sGFAP, sTau and sUCHL1, sNfL at attack was the strongest predictor of disability worsening at attack and follow-up, suggesting a role for identifying participants with NMOSD at risk of limited post-relapse recovery. Treatment with inebilizumab was associated with lower levels of sGFAP and sNfL than placebo., Trial Registration Number: NCT02200770., Competing Interests: Competing interests: OA reports grants from the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG); grants and personal fees from Biogen and Novartis; and travel support and personal fees from Alexion, Almirall, MedImmune, Merck Serono, Roche, Sanofi, Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics and Zambon. OA is a member of the European Reference Network for Rare Eye Diseases (ERN-EYE), co-funded by the Health Program of the European Union under the Framework Partnership Agreement No 739534 'ERN-EYE. H-PH has received fees for consulting, speaking and serving on steering committees from Bayer Healthcare, Biogen Idec, Celgene Receptos, CSL Behring, GeNeuro, Genzyme, MedDay, MedImmune, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, TG Therapeutics and Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics, with approval by the Rector of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf. KF has received fees for consulting, speaking and serving on steering committees from AbbVie, Alexion, Asahi Kasei Medical, Biogen, Chugai/Roche, Eisai, Japan Tobacco, MedImmune/Viela Bio, Merck, Merck Biopharma, Mitsubishi-Tanabe, Novartis, Takeda, Teijin and UCB, and has received Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Labor of Japan. FP has received research support, speaker fees and travel reimbursement from Bayer, Biogen Idec, Merck Serono, Novartis, Sanofi Genzyme and Teva; is supported by the German Competence Network for Multiple Sclerosis and the German Research Council (DFG Exc 257); has received travel reimbursement from the Guthy–Jackson Charitable Foundation; and serves on the steering committee of the OCTIMS study sponsored by Novartis. RM serves on scientific advisory boards for Alexion, Roche and Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics; and has received funding for travel and fees from Alexion, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Roche and Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics. JLB reports payment for study design/consultation from MedImmune/Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics; reports personal fees from AbbVie, Alexion, Beigene, Chugai, Clene Nanomedicine, Genentech, Genzyme, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, Reistone Biopharma and Roche; reports grants and personal fees from EMD Serono and Novartis; reports grants from Alexion, Mallinckrodt and the National Institutes of Health; and has a patent for Aquaporumab issued. HJK has received a grant from the National Research Foundation of Korea; consultancy/speaker fees or research support from Alexion, AprilBio, ALTOS Biologics, Biogen, Celltrion, Daewoong, Eisai, GC Pharma, HanAll BioPharma, Handok, Horizon Therapeutics (formerly Viela Bio), Kolon Life Science, MDimune, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi Genzyme, Teva-Handok and UCB; and is a co-editor for the Multiple Sclerosis Journal and an associated editor for the Journal of Clinical Neurology. BGW receives payments for serving as chair of attack adjudication committees for clinical trials in NMOSD for Alexion, MedImmune, UCB Bioscience and Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics; has consulted with Chugai, Genentech, Horizon Pharmaceuticals, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma and Roche; has received payments for speaking for Genentech and Roche; and has a patent for NMO-IgG for diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica, with royalties paid by Hospices Civils de Lyon, MVZ Labor PD Dr Volkmann und Kollegen GbR, RSR and the University of Oxford. SJP has received personal compensation for serving as a consultant for Astellas, Genentech and Sage Therapeutics; has received personal compensation for serving on scientific advisory boards or data safety monitoring boards for F. Hoffman-La Roche AG, Genentech and UCB; has received research support from Alexion, Roche/Genentech and Viela Bio/MedImmune/Horizon; has a Patent# 8,889,102 (Application#12-678350, Neuromyelitis Optica Autoantibodies as a Marker for Neoplasia)—issued; has a patent, Patent# 9,891,219B2 (Application#12-573942, Methods for Treating Neuromyelitis Optica [NMO] by Administration of Eculizumab to an individual that is Aquaporin-4 (AQP4)-IgG Autoantibody positive)—issued; and his institution has received compensation for serving as a consultant for Alexion, Astellas and Viela Bio/MedImmune/Horizon. DMW reports personal fees from Biogen, Genentech, Horizon, Mitsubishi Tanabe, Roche, UCB Pharma and Viela Bio; and research support paid to Mayo Clinic by Alexion Pharmaceuticals. GC has received personal fees for participation on data and safety monitoring boards from AI Therapeutics, AMO Pharma, AstraZeneca, Avexis Pharmaceuticals, Biolinerx, Brainstorm Cell Therapeutics, Bristol Meyers Squibb/Celgene, CSL Behring, Galmed Pharmaceuticals, Green Valley Pharma, Horizon Pharmaceuticals, Immunic, Karuna Therapeutics, Mapi Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Holdings, NHLBI (Protocol Review Committee), Novartis, Opko Biologics, Prothena Biosciences, Regeneron, Sanofi-Aventis, Reata Pharmaceuticals, University of Texas Southwestern, University of Pennsylvania and Visioneering Technologies; has received personal fees for consulting or advisory board participation from Alexion, Antisense Therapeutics, Biogen, Clinical Trial Solutions, Entelexo Biotherapeutics, Genentech, Genzyme, GW Pharmaceuticals, Immunic, Klein-Buendel Incorporated, Merck/Serono, Novartis, Osmotica Pharmaceuticals, Perception Neurosciences, Protalix Biotherapeutics, Recursion/Cerexis Pharmaceuticals, Regeneron, Roche, SAB Biotherapeutics; and is employed by the University of Alabama at Birmingham and President of Pythagoras, a private consulting company located in Birmingham, Alabama. BAC reports personal compensation for consulting from Alexion, Atara Biotherapeutics, Autobahn, Avotres, Biogen, EMD Serono, Gossamer Bio, Horizon, Neuron23, Novartis, Sanofi, TG Therapeutics and Therini Bio; and has received research support from Genentech. MAS, WAR, DS and DC are employees of Horizon Therapeutics and own stock. MG and EK are former employees of Horizon Therapeutics and own stock., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Complete and timely publication of clinical trials ensures that patients and the medical community are fully informed when making treatment decisions. The aim of this study is to assess the publication of phase III and IV clinical trials on multiple sclerosis (MS) drugs that have been carried out between 2010 and 2019 and to identify the factors associated with their publication in peer-reviewed journals., Methods: An advanced search in ClinicalTrials.gov was performed and consecutive searches in PubMed, EMBASE and Google Scholar were conducted looking for the associated publications of all completed trials. Study design characteristics, results and other relevant information were extracted. Data was analysed following a case-control design. Clinical trials with associated publications in peer-reviewed journals were the cases and unpublished trials were the controls. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify factors associated with trial publication., Results: One hundred and fifty clinical trials were included in the analysis. Ninety-six of them (64.0%) were published in peer-reviewed journals. In the multivariate analysis, factors associated with trial publication were a favourable primary outcome (OR 12.49, 95% CI 1.28 to 122.29) and reaching the originally estimated sample size (OR 41.97, 95% CI 1.96 to 900.48), while those associated with a lower odds of publication were having 20% or more patients lost to follow-up (OR 0.03, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.52) and evaluating drugs intended to improve treatment tolerability (OR 0.01, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.74)., Conclusions: Phase III and IV clinical trials on MS drugs are prone to under-reporting and publication bias. Efforts must be made to promote a complete and accurate dissemination of data in MS clinical research., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Neuralgic amyotrophy (NA) is an acute inflammation of nerves within the brachial plexus territory leading to severe pain and multifocal paresis resulting in >60% of patients having residual complaints and functional limitations correlated with scapular dyskinesia. Our primary aim was to compare the effects of multidisciplinary rehabilitation (MR), focused on motor relearning to improve scapular dyskinesia and self-management strategies for reducing pain and fatigue, with usual care (UC) on shoulder, arm and hand functional capability in patients with NA., Methods: In a non-blinded randomised controlled trial (RCT), patients with NA (aged≥18 years, scapular dyskinesia, >8 weeks after onset) were randomised to either an MR or an UC group. MR consisted of a diagnostic multidisciplinary consultation and eight sessions of physical and occupational therapy. Primary outcome was functional capability of the shoulder, arm and hand assessed with the Shoulder Rating Questionnaire-Dutch Language Version (SRQ-DLV)., Results: We included 47 patients with NA; due to drop-out, there were 22 participants in MR and 15 in UC for primary analysis. The mean group difference adjusted for sex, age and SRQ-DLV baseline score was 8.60 (95%CI: 0.26 to 16.94, p=0.044). The proportion attaining a minimal clinically relevant SRQ-DLV improvement (≥12) was larger for the MR group (59%) than the UC group (33%) with a number needed to treat of 4., Conclusion: This RCT shows that an MR programme focused on motor relearning to improve scapular dyskinesia, combined with self-management strategies for reducing pain and fatigue, shows more beneficial effects on shoulder, arm and hand functional capability than UC in patients with NA., Trial Registration Number: NCT03441347., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: High-level evidence for using steroids in epileptic encephalopathy (EE), other than West syndrome (WS), is lacking. This study investigated the efficacy and safety of pulse intravenous methylprednisolone (IVMP) in EE other than WS., Methods: This is an open-label evaluator-blinded randomised controlled study. Children aged 6 months or more with EE other than WS were included. Eighty children were randomised into intervention and non-intervention groups with 40 in each group. At the first visit (T1) seizure frequency, electroencephalographic (EEG) and Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS) were obtained, and antiseizure medication (ASM) were optimised. After 1 month (T2), subjects were randomised to intervention (ASM+3 months IVMP pulse) or non-intervention group (only ASM) with 40 subjects in each group. They were followed up for 4 months (T3) and assessed., Results: After 4 months of follow-up, 75% of patients receiving IVMP had >50% seizure reduction versus 15.4% in control group (χ2=28.29, p<0.001) (RR 4.88, 95% CI 2.29 to 10.40), median percentage change in seizure frequency (91.41% vs 10%, p<0.001), improvement in EEG (45.5% vs 9.4%, χ2=10.866, p=0.001) and social age domain of VSMS scores (Z=-3.62, p<0.001) compared with baseline. None of the patients in the intervention group had any serious side-effects., Discussion: Three - month pulse IVMP therapy showed significant improvement in seizure frequency, EEG parameters and VSMS scores, with no steroid-related serious adverse effects. It can be considered as a safe and effective add on treatment in children with EE other than WS., Trial Registration Number: CTRI/2019/02/017807., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: While meta-analyses confirm treatment for chronic post-stroke aphasia is effective, a lack of comparative evidence for different interventions limits prescription accuracy. We investigated whether Constraint-Induced Aphasia Therapy Plus (CIAT-plus) and/or Multimodality Aphasia Therapy (M-MAT) provided greater therapeutic benefit compared with usual community care and were differentially effective according to baseline aphasia severity., Methods: We conducted a three-arm, multicentre, parallel group, open-label, blinded endpoint, phase III, randomised-controlled trial. We stratified eligible participants by baseline aphasia on the Western Aphasia Battery-Revised Aphasia Quotient (WAB-R-AQ). Groups of three participants were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to 30 hours of CIAT-Plus or M-MAT or to usual care (UC). Primary outcome was change in aphasia severity (WAB-R-AQ) from baseline to therapy completion analysed in the intention-to-treat population. Secondary outcomes included word retrieval, connected speech, functional communication, multimodal communication, quality of life and costs., Results: We analysed 201 participants (70 in CIAT-Plus, 70 in M-MAT and 61 in UC). Aphasia severity was not significantly different between groups at postintervention: 1.05 points (95% CI -0.78 to 2.88; p=0.36) UC group vs CIAT-Plus; 1.06 points (95% CI -0.78 to 2.89; p=0.36) UC group vs M-MAT; 0.004 points (95% CI -1.76 to 1.77; p=1.00) CIAT-Plus vs M-MAT. Word retrieval, functional communication and communication-related quality of life were significantly improved following CIAT-Plus and M-MAT. Word retrieval benefits were maintained at 12-week follow-up., Conclusions: CIAT-Plus and M-MAT were effective for word retrieval, functional communication, and quality of life, while UC was not. Future studies should explore predictive characteristics of responders and impacts of maintenance doses., Trial Registration Number: ACTRN 2615000618550., Competing Interests: Competing interests: MLR, LN, DC, LT, EG, MM, TR, DAC, JK and MH were members of the COMPARE steering committee, chaired by MLR., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Coformulated sodium phenylbutyrate/taurursodiol (PB/TURSO) was shown to prolong survival and slow functional decline in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)., Objective: Determine whether PB/TURSO prolonged tracheostomy/ventilation-free survival and/or reduced first hospitalisation in participants with ALS in the CENTAUR trial., Methods: Adults with El Escorial Definite ALS ≤18 months from symptom onset were randomised to PB/ TURSO or placebo for 6 months. Those completing randomised treatment could enrol in an open-label extension (OLE) phase and receive PB/TURSO for ≤30 months. Times to the following individual or combined key events were compared in the originally randomised treatment groups over a period spanning trial start through July 2020 (longest postrandomisation follow-up, 35 months): death, tracheostomy, permanent assisted ventilation (PAV) and first hospitalisation., Results: Risk of any key event was 47% lower in those originally randomised to PB/TURSO (n=87) versus placebo (n=48, 71% of whom received delayed-start PB/TURSO in the OLE phase) (HR=0.53; 95% CI 0.35 to 0.81; p=0.003). Risks of death or tracheostomy/PAV (HR=0.51; 95% CI 0.32 to 0.84; p=0.007) and first hospitalisation (HR=0.56; 95% CI 0.34 to 0.95; p=0.03) were also decreased in those originally randomised to PB/TURSO., Conclusions: Early PB/TURSO prolonged tracheostomy/PAV-free survival and delayed first hospitalisation in ALS., Trial Registration Number: NCT03127514; NCT03488524., Competing Interests: Competing interests: SP reports grant support from Amylyx during the conduct of the study; grant support from Revalesio, Biohaven, UCB, Clene, Prilenia, and Seelos outside the submitted work; and consulting fees from Orion, Cytokinetics, and Medscape outside the submitted work. SH is owner, and SH, SPD, and NK are employees of Pentara Corporation, which was contracted by Amylyx for statistical analysis. JDB reports clinical trial support from Amylyx Pharmaceuticals, Inc, during the conduct of the study; grant support from Alexion, Biogen, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma America (MTPA), Anelixis Therapeutics, Brainstorm Cell Therapeutics, nQ Medical, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the Muscular Dystrophy Association, ALS One, Amylyx, MT Pharma Holdings of America, The ALS Association, ALS Finding a Cure®, and RAPA Therapeutics outside the submitted work; and personal fees from Biogen, Clene Nanomedicine, MTPA, MT Pharma Holdings of America, Sawai Pharmaceutical Co, Ltd, and Janssen outside the submitted work. MAE reports payment and personal fees from Amylyx for advisory board and speakers bureau participation outside the submitted work. CK reports consulting fees from Alnylam, Takeda, CSL Behring, Argenx, Akcea/Ionis, and Sanofi; honoraria from Alnylam; and advisory board participation fees from Alnylam and Orphazyme, all outside the submitted work. JBC reports grants from AZ Therapies Inc, MTB Pharmaceuticals, and Cytokinetics Inc, lecture honorarium from Northwest Area Health Education Center, and consulting fees from the Department of Defense Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs grant review board, all outside the submitted work. JW reports research funding from Amylyx during the conduct of the study and presentation honoraria from Amylyx outside the submitted work. SAG reports institutional funding from Amylyx and The ALS Association during the conduct of the study; institutional funding from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and The ALS Association outside the submitted work; consulting fees from Biogen and ITF Pharma outside the submitted work; lecture fees from Illinois State Neurological Society Lecture and Spectrum Health outside the submitted work; and personal fees for Data Safety Monitoring Board (DSMB) participation from Watermark outside the submitted work; and is an inventor on institutional patent US10660895B2. DH reports advisory board participation for Amylyx outside the submitted work. TDH-P reports clinical trial funding from Amylyx during the conduct of the study; institutional grant support from Cytokinetics, Orion, Bio 3, MTPA, the Sean M. Healey and AMG Center for ALS & the Neurological Clinical Research Institute, UCB Pharma, Alexion, and AB Sciences outside the submitted work; institutional contract work with Samus outside the submitted work; consulting fees from Samus, Alpha Insights, and Evidera outside the submitted work; payment for educational deliverables from Platform Q Health, WebMD, MJH Holdings, IQVIA, P Value, and Vindico Medical Education outside the submitted work; and advisory board fees from MTPA, Cytokinetics, AB Bio, Alexion, Biogen, and Orphazyme outside the submitted work; and is President of the ALS Hope Foundation. CEJ reports grant support from the Muscular Dystrophy Association, The ALS Association, and the National Institutes of Health and advisory board participation for Brainstorm Cell Therapeutics, MTPA, and Anelixis, all outside the submitted work, and is President Elect of the American Academy of Neurology. CQ reports advisory board fees from Amylyx outside the submitted work. JDR reports clinical trial funding from Amylyx during the conduct of the study; licensing agreement and nonfinancial support from Ionis Pharmaceuticals; nonfinancial support from Calico, Biogen, and IBM Watson; research grant support from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institute on Aging, Department of Defense, the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, Microsoft, The ALS Association, the Muscular Dystrophy Association, Target ALS, F Prime, ALS Finding A Cure, Answer ALS, Robert Packard Center for ALS Research, GlaxoSmithKline, Travelers Insurance, American Airlines, Caterpillar, and the National Football League; and personal consulting fees from Expansion Therapeutics and Team Gleason, all outside the submitted work. JK reports consulting fees from Calico, Denali, Biogen, MTPA, and Amylyx outside the submitted work. LJ reports advisory board participation for Cytokinetics outside the submitted work. SL reports advisory board fees from Amylyx outside the submitted work. TMM reports licensing agreements with Ionis Pharmaceuticals and C2N, consulting fees from Cytokinetics, Ionis Pharmaceuticals, and Disarm Therapeutics, lecture honorarium from Regeneron, advisory board participation for Biogen and UCB Pharma, and receipt of reagents from Ionis Pharmaceuticals, all outside the submitted work, and is co-chair of the Northeast ALS Consortium. SNS reports funding from Amylyx during the conduct of the study; grant support from Orion Pharma and Alexion outside the submitted work; lecture (grand rounds) honorarium from New York University outside the submitted work; and payment for expert testimony from Martin Clearwater & Bell LLP; Shaub, Ahmuty, Citrin & Spratt LLP; MCIC Vermont; and Aaronson Rappaport Feinstein and Deutsch, LLP outside the submitted work. THV reports institutional funding from Amylyx during the conduct of the study; institutional grant support from Alexion, Alector, Annexon Bio, Apellis, Biogen, Cytokinetics, Healey ALS Platform Trial, MT Pharma, and Sanofi outside the submitted work; and honoraria from Amylyx, Alexion, and Cytokinetics outside the submitted work. CNF reports institutional funding from Amylyx during the conduct of the study. AS reports institutional grant support from Amylyx during the conduct of the study and from the Rare Diseases Clinical Research Network, National Institutes of Health, Healey ALS Platform Trial, Cytokinetics, and Wyck Foundation outside the submitted work; honorarium from Weill Cornell Medicine – Qatar (residency recruitment seminar) outside the submitted work; uncompensated DSMB participation for the University of Kansas outside the submitted work; and compensated independent data monitoring committee participation for Alexion outside the submitted work. NAG reports grants from Alexion, Annelixis, Annexon, Brainstorm Cell Therapeutics, Cytokinetics, Fulcrum, the Sean M. Healey and AMG Center for ALS & the Neurological Clinical Research Institute, Kezar, Medicinova, Octapharma, Orion, and Orphazyme and advisory board participation for Alexion, Argenx, AstraZeneca, CSL Behring, MT Pharma, Sanofi Genzyme, Sarepta, and UCB, all outside the submitted work. GLP reports consulting fees from MT Pharma and honoraria from MT Pharma and Cytokinetics, all outside the submitted work. GK reports provision of trial supplies from Amylyx during the conduct of the study. JMS reports grant support from the National Institutes of Health, The ALS Association, Amylyx, Biogen, Biotie Therapies (now Acorda Therapeutics), Cytokinetics Incorporated, MTPA, Alexion, Medicinova, Ionis, Alector, and Orphazyme; royalties from UpToDate; consulting fees from Amylyx, Apic Biosciences, Neurosense, Cytokinetics, Denali, GSK, MTPA, Orphazyme, Pinteon, RRD, Swanbio, Helixsmith, Novartis, Sanofi, and EMD Serono; and honoraria from Amylyx (symposium) and Oakstone (online presentation); all outside the submitted work. JC and JK are co-CEOs of and own stock in Amylyx, the trial sponsor, and report grant support from ALS Finding a Cure and The ALS Association during the conduct of the study. RET is Founding Chair of Amylyx’s Scientific Advisory Board and holds equity in Amylyx. Dr Gilbert reports stock ownership in Amylyx. PDY reports full-time employment and stock option ownership with Amylyx outside the submitted work. MEC reports consulting fees from Faze, Regeneron, AB Sciences, Avexis, Orion, Lilly, Biohaven, Mt Pharma, Revalasio, Aclipse, Anelexis, Cytokinetics, Disarm, ALS Pharma, Immunity Pharma, Wave, Sunovian, Pontifex, Denali, Transposen, Quralis, Helixsmith, and RRD and is a board member for Praxis, all outside the submitted work., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

We analysed clinical trials of pharmacological interventions on patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and compared study quality and design features. The systematic review included articles published in PubMed and trials registered in ClinicalTrials.gov. Included studies were randomised double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trials assessing a disease-modifying pharmacological intervention. Studies were excluded if primary end points were safety or dose finding. A total of 28 735 articles and 721 current trials were identified. 76 published articles and 23 ongoing trials met inclusion criteria; they referred to distinct populations comprising 22 817 participants with ALS. Most articles and all current trials had parallel group design; few articles had cross-over design. A run-in observation period was included in about 20% of published studies and ongoing trials. Primary end points included functional assessment, survival, muscle strength, respiratory function, biomarkers and composite measures. Most recent trials had only functional assessment and survival. Risk of bias was high in 23 articles, moderate in 35, low in 18. A disease modification effect was observed for 10 interventions in phase II studies, two of which were confirmed in phase III. Three confirmatory phase III studies are currently underway. The present review provides cues for the design of future trials. Functional decline and survival, as single or composite measures, stand as the reference end points. Post hoc analyses should not be performed, particularly in studies using composite end points. There is a general agreement on diagnostic criteria; but eligibility criteria must be improved. Run-in observations may be used for censoring patients but are discouraged for refining participants' eligibility. The ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised needs improvement for use as an ordinal measure of functional decline., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) show considerable variation in symptoms. Treatments targeting an overall improvement in symptomatology may not address what the majority of patients consider to be most important. Here, we propose a composite endpoint for ALS clinical trials that weighs the improvement in symptoms compared with what the patient population actually wants., Methods: An online questionnaire was sent out to a population-based registry in The Netherlands. Patients with ALS were asked to score functional domains with a validated self-reported questionnaire, and rank the order of importance of each domain. This information was used to estimate variability in patient preferences and to develop the Patient-Ranked Order of Function (PROOF) endpoint., Results: There was extensive variability in patient preferences among the 433 responders. The majority of the patients (62.1%) preferred to prioritise certain symptoms over others when evaluating treatments. The PROOF endpoint was established by comparing each patient in the treatment arm to each patient in the placebo arm, based on their preferred order of functional domains. PROOF averages all pairwise comparisons, and reflects the probability that a patient receiving treatment has a better outcome on domains that are most important to them, compared with a patient receiving placebo. By means of simulation we illustrate how incorporating patient preference may upgrade or downgrade trial results., Conclusions: The PROOF endpoint provides a balanced patient-focused analysis of the improvement in function and may help to refine the risk-benefit assessment of new treatments for ALS., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: To evaluate individual and group long-term efficacy and safety of erenumab in individuals with episodic migraine (EM) for whom 2-4 prior preventatives had failed., Methods: Participants completing the 12-week double-blind treatment phase (DBTP) of the LIBERTY study could continue into an open-label extension phase (OLEP) receiving erenumab 140 mg monthly for up to 3 years. Main outcomes assessed at week 112 were: ≥50%, ≥75% and 100% reduction in monthly migraine days (MMD) as group responder rate and individual responder rates, MMD change from baseline, safety and tolerability., Results: Overall 240/246 (97.6%) entered the OLEP (118 continuing erenumab, 122 switching from placebo). In total 181/240 (75.4%) reached 112 weeks, 24.6% discontinued, mainly due to lack of efficacy (44.0%), participant decision (37.0%) and adverse events (AEs; 12.0%). The ≥50% responder rate was 57.2% (99/173) at 112 weeks. Of ≥50% responders at the end of the DBTP, 36/52 (69.2%) remained responders at ≥50% and 22/52 (42.3%) at >80% of visits. Of the non-responders at the end of the DBTP, 60/185 (32.4%) converted to ≥50% responders in at least half the visits and 24/185 (13.0%) converted to ≥50% responders in >80% of visits. Change from baseline at 112 weeks in mean (SD) MMD was -4.2 (5.0) days. Common AEs (≥10%) were nasopharyngitis, influenza and back pain., Conclusions: Efficacy was sustained over 112 weeks in individuals with difficult-to-treat EM for whom 2-4 prior migraine preventives had failed. Erenumab treatment was safe and well tolerated, in-line with previous studies., Trial Registration Number: NCT03096834., Competing Interests: Competing interests: MDF reports no competing interests.UR reports grants, personal fees and other from Novartis, personal fees and other from Amgen during the conduct of the study; personal fees and other from AbbVie, grants, personal fees and other from Allergan, other from Alder, personal fees and other from Eli Lilly, personal fees from Lundbeck, personal fees from Medscape and Perfood, grants, personal fees and other from Novartis, personal fees and other from Teva Pharmaceuticals, outside the submitted work. PJG reports personal fees from Aeon Biopharma, personal fees from Alder Biopharmaceuticals, grants and personal fees from Amgen, personal fees from Allergan, personal fees from Biohaven Pharmaceuticals, grants from Celgene, personal fees from Clexio, grants and personal fees from Eli Lilly and Company, from Electrocore, personal fees from eNeura Inc, personal fees from Epalex, personal fees from GlaxoSmithKline, personal fees from Impel Neuropharma, personal fees from Lundbeck, personal fees from MundiPharma, personal fees from Novartis, personal fees from Pfizer, personal fees from Praxis, personal fees from Santara Therapeutics, personal fees from Sanofi, personal fees from Satsuma, personal fees from Teva Pharmaceuticals, other from Trigemina, personal fees from WL Gore, personal fees from Dr Reddy’s, outside the submitted work. In addition, PJG has a patent Magnetic stimulation for headache licensed to eNeura without fee and fees for advice through Gerson Lehrman Group, LEK and Guidepoint, and fees for educational materials from Medery, Medlink, PrimeEd, UptoDate, WebMD and fees for publishing from Oxford University Press, Massachusetts Medical Society, and Wolters Kluwer, and for medicolegal advice in headache. GPdSL is an employee of and holds stocks in Amgen.Subhayan Mondal is an employee of Novartis.Tracy Stites, Shihua Wen and Shaloo Pandhi are employees of and hold stocks in Novartis. NT was an employee of Novartis at the time of drafting this research manuscript. ML-M reports personal fees and other from Novartis, during the conduct of the study; personal fees from Allergan, personal fees and other from Amgen, grants, personal fees and other from Eli Lilly, personal fees from Grunenthal, grants and personal fees from Medtronic, grants, personal fees and other from Novartis, personal fees from Pfizer, personal fees from Reckitt Benkiser, grants, personal fees and other from Teva Pharmaceuticals, personal fees from UPSA, personal fees from Zambon, outside the submitted work., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: There is growing evidence that the course of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) may be influenced beneficially by applying high-caloric food supplements (HCSs). However, it is unknown which composition of nutrients offers optimal tolerability and weight gain., Methods: We conducted a randomised controlled study (Safety and Tolerability of Ultra-high-caloric Food Supplements in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS); TOLCAL-ALS study) in 64 patients with possible, probable or definite ALS according to El Escorial criteria. Patients were randomised into four groups: a high-caloric fatty supplement (HCFS; 405 kcal/day, 100% fat), an ultra-high-caloric fatty supplement (UHCFS; 810 kcal/day, 100% fat), an ultra-high-caloric, carbohydrate-rich supplement (UHCCS; 900 kcal/day, 49% carbohydrates) and an open control (OC) group without any supplement. The primary endpoint was tolerability. Patients were followed up over 4 weeks., Results: Gastrointestinal side effects were most frequent in the UHCFS group (75.0%), while loss of appetite was most frequent in the UHCCS group (35.3%). During intervention, patients gained +0.9 kg/month of body weight (IQR -0.9 to 1.5; p=0.03) in the HCFS group and +0.9 kg/month (IQR -0.8 to 2.0; p=0.05) in the UHCFS group. A non-significant trend for weight gain (+0.6 kg/month (IQR -0.3 to 1.9; p=0.08)) was observed in the UHCCS group. Patients in OC group continued to lose body weight (-0.5 kg/month, IQR -1.4 to 1.3; p=0.42)., Interpretation: The findings suggest that HCSs frequently cause mild to moderate tolerability issues in patients with ALS, most notably gastrointestinal symptoms in high-fat supplements, and loss of appetite in high-carbohydrate supplements. All three HCSs tested are suited to increase body weight., Competing Interests: Competing interests: JDor reports that the dietary supplements for this study were provided by Nutricia GmbH (Frankfurt a.M., Germany) free of cost. All other authors declare no competing interests related to the content of the manuscript., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Investigators acknowledge the limitations of rodent or non-human primate stroke models, hundreds of putative neuroprotectants have been evaluated in preclinical models, but not one has entered the clinical realm. Initial studies focused on the neuron, but in recent years the focus has widened to also include other neural cells including astrocytes, pericytes and endothelial cells, which together form the neurovascular unit. Some new developments raise renewed hope for neuroprotection: the appearance of new compounds with multiple mechanisms of action, or the promulgation of new standards for a rigorous preclinical testing. At the bedside in the last 5 years, uric acid and nerinetide are the only compounds tested for clinical efficacy in randomised controlled trials (RCTs), where all patients had to receive reperfusion therapies, either intravenous thrombolysis and/or mechanical thrombectomy. In addition, otaplimastat, 3K3A-activated protein C (APC), intra-arterial verapamil and intra-arterial hypothermia were also assessed in combination with reperfusion therapy, but in RCTs that only included feasibility or safety outcomes. Some of these compounds yielded promising results which are discussed in this review. Altogether, a deeper knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the ischaemic death process at the neurovascular unit, an improved preselection and evaluation of drugs at the preclinical stage and the testing of putative neuroprotectants in enriched clinical studies of patients receiving reperfusion therapies, might prove more effective than in the past to reverse a dismal situation that has lasted already too long., Competing Interests: Competing interests: ÁC is inventor of a patent on the combination of uric acid and citicoline., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

The rapid eye movement sleep behavioural disorder (RBD) population is an ideal study population for testing disease-modifying treatments for synucleinopathies, since RBD represents an early prodromal stage of synucleinopathy when neuropathology may be more responsive to treatment. While clonazepam and melatonin are most commonly used as symptomatic treatments for RBD, clinical trials of symptomatic treatments are also needed to identify evidence-based treatments. A comprehensive framework for both disease-modifying and symptomatic treatment trials in RBD is described, including potential treatments in the pipeline, cost-effective participant recruitment and selection, study design, outcomes and dissemination of results. For disease-modifying treatment clinical trials, the recommended primary outcome is phenoconversion to an overt synucleinopathy, and stratification features should be used to select a study population at high risk of phenoconversion, to enable more rapid clinical trials. For symptomatic treatment clinical trials, objective polysomnogram-based measurement of RBD-related movements and vocalisations should be the primary outcome measure, rather than subjective scales or diaries. Mobile technology to enable objective measurement of RBD episodes in the ambulatory setting, and advances in imaging, biofluid, tissue, and neurophysiological biomarkers of synucleinopathies, will enable more efficient clinical trials but are still in development. Increasing awareness of RBD among the general public and medical community coupled with timely diagnosis of these diseases will facilitate progress in the development of therapeutics for RBD and associated neurodegenerative disorders., Competing Interests: Competing interests: AV reports personnel fees from Acorda, Acadia, Pfizer, Theranexus, Jazz and Wilson Therapeutics. IA reports personal fees from Roche Pharma and UCB Pharma. BH reports personal fees from Jazz, Ono, Axovant, Benevolent Bio, Mundipharma, Roche, Takeda, AoP Orphan, Jazz, Abbvie, AoP, Lundbeck, Eli Lilly, Otsuka, Janssen Cilag, Inspire and Habel Medizintechnik. FP reports personal fees from Vanda Pharmaceutical, Sanofi, Zambon, Fidia, Bial, Eisai Japan and Italfarmaco. CHS reports personal fees from Axovant. CT reports personal fees from Britannia, Roche, UCB, Gruenenthal and Otsuka., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objective: Impairment of mental well-being (anxiety, depression, stress) is common among people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS). Treatment options are limited, particularly for anxiety. The aim of this study was to update our previous systematic review (2014) and evaluate via meta-analysis the efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) for improving mental well-being in PwMS., Methods: Systematic searches for eligible randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were carried out in seven major databases (November 2017, July 2018), using medical subject headings and key words. Studies were screened, data extracted, quality appraised and analysed by two independent reviewers, using predefined criteria. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration risk of bias tool. Mental well-being was the primary outcome. Random effects model meta-analysis was performed, with effect size reported as standardised mean difference (SMD)., Results: Twelve RCTs including 744 PwMS were eligible for inclusion in the systematic review, eight had data extractable for meta-analysis; n=635. Ethnicity, socioeconomic status, comorbidity and disability were inconsistently reported. MBIs varied from manualised to tailored versions, lasting 6-9 weeks, delivered individually and via groups, both in person and online. Overall SMD for mental well-being (eight studies) was 0.40 (0.28-0.53), p<0.01, I 2 =28%; against active comparators only (three studies) SMD was 0.17 (0.01-0.32), p<0.05, I 2 =0%. Only three adverse events were reported., Conclusions: MBIs are effective at improving mental well-being in PwMS. More research is needed regarding optimal delivery method, cost-effectiveness and comparative-effectiveness., Prospero Registration Number: CRD42018093171., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Non-invasive neuromodulation therapies for migraine and cluster headache are a practical and safe alternative to pharmacologics. Comparisons of these therapies are difficult because of the heterogeneity in study designs. In this systematic review of clinical trials, the scientific rigour and clinical relevance of the available data were assessed to inform clinical decisions about non-invasive neuromodulation. PubMed, Cochrane Library and ClinicalTrials.gov databases and the WHO's International Clinical Trials Registry Platform were searched for relevant clinical studies of non-invasive neuromodulation devices for migraine and cluster headache (1 January 1990 to 31 January 2018), and 71 were identified. This analysis compared study designs using recommendations of the International Headache Society for pharmacological clinical trials, the only available guidelines for migraine and cluster headache. Non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation (nVNS), single-transcranial magnetic stimulation and external trigeminal nerve stimulation (all with regulatory clearance) were well studied compared with the other devices, for which studies frequently lacked proper blinding, sham controls and sufficient population sizes. nVNS studies demonstrated the most consistent adherence to available guidelines. Studies of all neuromodulation devices should strive to achieve the same high level of scientific rigour to allow for proper comparison across devices. Device-specific guidelines for migraine and cluster headache will be soon available, but adherence to current guidelines for pharmacological trials will remain a key consideration for investigators and clinicians., Competing Interests: Competing interests: PP-R has received honoraria as a consultant and speaker for Allergan, Amgen, Almirall, Chiesi, Eli Lilly, Janssen Cilag, Medscape, MSD, Novartis, and Teva. Her research group has received research grants from Allergan and has received funding for clinical trials from Alder, Boehringer Ingelheim, MSD, electroCore, Eli Lilly, Janssen Cilag, Novartis, and Teva. She is a trustee member of the board of the International Headache Society, a member of the Council of the European Headache Federation, and coordinator of the Spanish Headache Study Group of the Spanish Neurological Society. She is on the editorial board of Revista de Neurologia. She is an editor for Frontiers in Neurology and The Journal of Headache and Pain. She is a member of the Clinical Trials Guidelines Committee of the International Headache Society. She has edited the Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Headache of the Spanish Neurological Society. She is the founder of www.midolordecabeza.org. She does not own stocks in any pharmaceutical company. CM is an employee of North American Science Associates, Inc. EL is an employee of electroCore, Inc., and receives stock ownership. UR has received honoraria as a consultant and speaker for Allergan, Amgen, Autonomic Technologies, Eli Lilly, electroCore, Novartis, Medscape, StreMedup, and Teva. He has participated in clinical trials from Allergan, Alder, Amgen, Autonomic Technologies, Eli Lilly, electroCore, Novartis, and Teva. He is a board member of the European Headache Federation. He is on the editorial boards of The Journal of Headache and Pain and Frontiers in Neurology., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

The frontotemporal dementia (FTD) spectrum is a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative syndromes with overlapping clinical, molecular and pathological features, all of which challenge the design of clinical trials in these conditions. To date, no pharmacological interventions have been proven effective in significantly modifying the course of these disorders. This study critically reviews the construct and methodology of previously published randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in FTD spectrum disorders in order to identify limitations and potential reasons for negative results. Moreover, recommendations based on the identified gaps are elaborated in order to guide future clinical trial design. A systematic literature review was carried out and presented in conformity with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses criteria. A total of 23 RCTs in cohorts with diagnoses of behavioural and language variants of FTD, corticobasal syndrome and progressive supranuclear palsy syndrome were identified out of the 943 citations retrieved and were included in the qualitative review. Most studies identified were early-phase clinical trials that were small in size, short in duration and frequently underpowered. Diagnoses of populations enrolled in clinical trials were based on clinical presentation and rarely included precision-medicine tools, such as genetic and molecular testing. Uniformity and standardisation of research outcomes in the FTD spectrum are essential. Several elements should be carefully considered and planned in future clinical trials. We anticipate that precision-medicine approaches will be crucial to adequately address heterogeneity in the FTD spectrum research., Competing Interests: Competing interests: PD and QDN have nothing to disclose. SEB and MM are supported by the Department of Medicine (Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre and the University of Toronto), the Sunnybrook Foundation, the Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program and the Sunnybrook Research Institute. MM also receives support as co-lead of the Ontario Neurodegenerative Disease Research Initiative funded by the Ontario Brain Institute. SEB also receives support as the executive director of the Toronto Dementia Research Alliance. SEB does contract research for Eli Lilly, Biogen, GE Healthcare, Genentech, Novartis, Optina and Roche; received peer-reviewed funding from CIHR, CPSR, Brain Canada, ADDF, NIA, NIH, Leducq Foundation, OBI and Weston Brain Institute; and received speaker fees from Novartis and Eli Lilly. MM receives peer-reviewed research support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Weston Brain Institute, Washington University, Parkinson Society Canada, Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation, Brain Canada, Canadian Consortium on Neurodegeneration in Aging and Ontario Brain Institute. MM has also served as an advisor to Bioscape Medical Imaging CRO, Novartis, Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Arkuda Therapeutics and UCB; received honoraria from Novartis; received royalties from Henry Stewart Talks; received an investigator-initiated research grant from Teva; and received contract research support from Roche, Novartis and Axovant. NH is supported by the Canadian Consortium on Neurodegeneration in Aging and peer-reviewed grants from the Alzheimer Society of Canada (grant 15-17), Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation (grant 20140503), Canadian Institutes of Health Research, National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health (grant R01AG046543), and the Heart and Stroke Foundation (grant NA 7220), in addition to research contracts funded by Roche, Axovant and Lundbeck Canada. NH received consultation fees from Astellas, Lilly, Merck, Pfizer and Mediti. AEL has served as an advisor for AbbVie, Acorda, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Janssen, Sun Pharma, Kallyope, Merck, Paladin and Corticobasal Degeneration Solutions; received honoraria from Sun Pharma, Medichem, Medtronic, AbbVie and Sunovion; received grants from Brain Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Corticobasal Degeneration Solutions, Edmond J Safra Philanthropic Foundation, Michael J Fox Foundation, the Ontario Brain Institute, National Parkinson Foundation, Parkinson Society Canada and W Garfield Weston Foundation; received publishing royalties from Elsevier, Saunders, Wiley-Blackwell, Johns Hopkins Press and Cambridge University Press. HHF receives peer-reviewed grant funding support from the Canadian Consortium on Neurodegeneration in Aging (CIHR 137794), National Institute on Aging (U19AG010483) (2UF1Ago32438-07), CIHR and Weston Brain Institute (Grant # 363926), and Brain Canada (IMPACT AD study), and other grant funding from Toyama Pharmaceutical, Biohaven Pharmaceuticals and Probiodrug. He has either current or past service agreements through UC San Diego with Banner Health, Roche Genentech, Arkuda Therapeutics, Samus, Samumed, Eisai, Merck and TauRx, and has received travel expenses from Axon Neurosciences, Alion Pharmaceuticals and Probiodrug. All other authors declare no competing interests., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Higher docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake is inversely correlated with relative risk of Alzheimer's disease. The potential benefits of DHA supplementation in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) have not been fully examined., Objective: Our study aimed to assess the effect of a 24-month DHA supplementation on cognitive function and amyloid beta (Aβ)-mediated autophagy in elderly subjects with MCI., Methods: This was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Tianjin, China. A total of 240 individuals with MCI were identified and randomly divided into intervention (DHA 2 g/day, n=120) and control (corn oil as placebo, n=120) groups. Cognitive function and blood Aβ-related biomarkers were measured at baseline, 6, 12, 18 and 24 months. Data were analysed using generalised estimating equation., Results: A total of 217 participants (DHA: 109, placebo: 108) completed the trial. During the follow-up, scores of full-scale IQ, verbal IQ and subdomains of information and digit span were significantly higher in the intervention group than the convention group (p<0.05). In the intervention group, blood Aβ-42 level and expression of Aβ protein precursor mRNA were decreased (p<0.05), while Beclin-1 and LC3-II levels and expression of LC3-II mRNA were increased (p<0.05)., Conclusion: Daily oral DHA supplementation (2 g/day) for 24 months may improve cognitive function and change blood biomarker-related Aβ-mediated autophagy in people with MCI. Larger longer-term confirmatory studies are warranted., Trial Registration Number: ChiCTR-IOR-15006058., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

The global burden of intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is enormous. Developing evidence-based management strategies for ICH has been hampered by its diverse aetiology, high case fatality and variable cooperative organisation of medical and surgical care. Progress is being made through the conduct of collaborative multicentre studies with the large sample sizes necessary to evaluate therapies with realistically modest treatment effects. This narrative review describes the major consequences of ICH and provides evidence-based recommendations to support decision-making in medical management., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/.)

Objective: The choice of adequate proxy for long-term survival, the ultimate outcome in randomised clinical trials (RCT) assessing disease-modifying treatments for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is a key issue. The intrinsic limitations of the ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised (ALSFRS-R), including non-linearity, multidimensionality and floor-effect, have emerged and its usefulness argued. The ALS Milano-Torino staging (ALS-MITOS) system was proposed as a novel tool to measure the progression of ALS and overcome these limitations. This study was performed to validate the ALS-MITOS as a 6-month proxy of survival in 200 ALS patients followed up to 18 months., Methods: Analyses were performed on data from the recombinant human erythropoietin RCT that failed to demonstrate differences between groups for both primary and secondary outcomes. The ALS-MITOS system is composed of four key domains included in the ALSFRS-R scale (walking/self-care, swallowing, communicating and breathing), each with a threshold reflecting the loss of function in the specific ALSFRS-R subscores. Sensitivity, specificity and the area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic curves of the ALS-MITOS system stages and ALSFRS-R decline at 6 months were calculated and compared with the primary outcome (survival, tracheotomy or >23-hour non-invasive ventilation) at 12 and 18 months Predicted probabilities of the ALS-MITO system at 6 months for any event at 12 and 18 months were computed through logistic regression models., Results: Disease progression from baseline to 6 months as defined by the ALS-MITOS system predicted death, tracheotomy or >23-hour non-invasive ventilation at 12 months with 82% sensitivity (95% CI 71% to 93%, n=37/45) and 63% specificity (95% CI 55% to 71%, n=92/146), and at 18 months with 71% sensitivity (95% CI 61% to 82%, n=50/70) and 68% specificity (95% CI 60% to 77%, n=76/111). The analysis of ALS-MITOS and ALSFRS-R progression at 6-month follow-up showed that the best cut-off to predict survival at 12 and 18 months was 1 for the ALS-MITOS (ie, loss of at least one function) and a decline ranging from 6 to 9 points for the ALSFRS-R., Conclusions: The ALS-MITOS system can reliably predict the course of ALS up to 18 months and can be considered a novel and valid outcome measure in RCTs., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Background: Poor prognosis after intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is related to haemorrhage characteristics. Along with developing therapeutic interventions, we sought to understand the performance of haemorrhage descriptors in large clinical trials., Methods: Clinical and neuroimaging data were obtained for 548 participants with ICH from the Efficacy of Nitric Oxide in Stroke (ENOS) trial. Independent observers performed visual categorisation of the largest diameter, measured volume using ABC/2, modified ABC/2, semiautomated segmentation (SAS), fully automatic measurement methods; shape, density and intraventricular haemorrhage were also assessed. Intraobserver and interobserver reliability were determined for these measures., Results: ICH volume was significantly different among standard ABC/2, modified ABC/2 and SAS: (mean) 12.8 (SD 16.3), 8.9 (9.2), 12.8 (13.1) cm(3), respectively (p<0.0001). There was excellent agreement for haemorrhage volume (n=193): ABC/2 intraobserver intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 0.96-0.97, interobserver ICC 0.88; modified ABC/2 intraobserver ICC 0.95-0.97, interobserver ICC 0.91; SAS intraobserver ICC 0.95-0.99, interobserver ICC 0.93; largest diameter: (visual) interadjudicator ICC 0.82, (visual vs measured) adjudicator vs observer ICC 0.71; shape intraobserver ICC 0.88 interobserver ICC 0.75; density intraobserver ICC 0.86, interobserver ICC 0.73. Graeb score (mean 3.53) and modified Graeb (5.22) scores were highly correlated. Using modified ABC/2, ICH volume was underestimated in regular (by 2.2-2.5 cm(3), p<0.0001) and irregular-shaped haemorrhages (by 4.8-4.9 cm(3), p<0.0001). Fully automated measurement of haemorrhage volume was possible in only 5% of cases., Conclusions: Formal measurement of haemorrhage characteristics and visual estimates are reproducible. The standard ABC/2 method is superior to the modified ABC/2 method for quantifying ICH volume., Clinical Trial Registration: ISRCTN9941422., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Background: Simple, robust, sensitive and clinically meaningful outcome measures are required for neuroprotective trials in Parkinson's disease (PD). We explored the feasibility of a composite binary outcome measure, 'dead or dependent', in such trials using data from a prospective follow-up study of an incident cohort of PD patients., Methods: Two hundred incident patients had an annual follow-up, including assessment of the Hoehn-Yahr stage (H-Y) and Schwab and England Activities of Daily Living Scale (S&E). Annual scores were converted into binary variables (H-Y <3 vs H-Y ≥3, and S&E ≥80% vs S&E <80%). A new outcome of 'dead or dependent' was also created, with dependence in activities of daily living defined as S&E <80%. Using these data, sample sizes were calculated for a hypothetical three-year randomised trial in which the trial outcome was defined by a binary clinical variable, all-cause mortality, or PD-related mortality., Results: At 3 years, 18.0% of patients were dead and 38.4% were dead or dependent. At 80% power, large sample sizes were required if PD-related mortality (n=1938 per study arm) or all-cause mortality (n=734) were used as the outcome, even for large treatment effects (30% reduction in relative risk). The new outcome of 'death or dependency' required the smallest sample sizes of all the outcome measures (n=277 for 30% reduction in relative risk, 627 for a 20% reduction)., Conclusions: 'Death or dependency' is a feasible and potentially useful outcome measure in PD trials of neuroprotective agents, but further work is required to validate its use and define dependency., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Objectives: The use of clinical staging in the fatal neurodegenerative disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis would have value in optimising future therapeutic trials. We aimed to use previous clinical trial data to determine the length of time patients spend in each of four proposed stages, its range and transition patterns to subsequent stages., Methods: Using databases from two multicentre clinical trials, patients were retrospectively staged through the trial course. At each stage we assessed whether patients then progressed to an earlier, consecutive or later stage or death. Duration spent in each stage before progression to a later stage was calculated., Results: There were 725 patients. No patients moved to an earlier stage. More patients at stages 1, 2 and 3 progressed to the consecutive stage rather than skipping a stage. 59.3% of patients at Stage 1 progressed to Stage 2, 54.0% of patients at Stage 2 progressed to Stage 3, 42.3% of patients at Stage 3 progressed to Stage 4 and 47.0% of Stage 4 patients progressed to death. Transition times between stages had a median duration of 3 to 7 months for stages 2 to 4., Discussion: We have shown using trial data that transition times between stages are short. Use of stage duration as an endpoint might allow a shorter trial duration. We have shown face validity in this system as most patients progress through consecutive stages, and none revert to earlier stages. Furthermore, we have shown the system is reliable across populations and therefore has content validity., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Objective: To examine the long-term impact of early treatment initiation of interferon beta-1b (IFNB1b, Betaferon/Betaseron) in patients with a first event suggestive of multiple sclerosis (MS)., Methods: In the original placebo-controlled phase of BENEFIT, patients were randomised to IFNB1b 250 μg or placebo subcutaneously every other day. After 2 years or diagnosis of clinically definite MS (CDMS), all patients were offered open-label IFNB1b treatment for a maximum duration of 5 years. Thereafter, patients were enrolled in an observational extension study for up to 8.7 years., Results: Of the initial 468 patients, 284 (60.7%; IFNB1b: 178 (61.0% of the original arm), placebo: 106 (60.2% of original arm)) were enrolled in the extension study. 94.2% of patients were receiving IFNB1b. Patients originally randomised to IFNB1b had a reduced risk of developing CDMS by 32.2% over the 8-year observation period (HR 0.678; 95% CI 0.525 to 0.875; p=0.0030), a longer median time to CDMS by 1345 days (95% CI 389 to 2301), and a lower annualised relapse rate (0.196 (95% CI 0.176 to 0.218) versus 0.255 (95% CI 0.226 to 0.287), p=0.0012), with differences mainly emerging in the first year of the study. Cognitive outcomes remained higher in the early treated patients. EDSS remained low over time with a median of 1.5 in both arms., Conclusions: These 8-year results provide further evidence supporting early initiation of treatment with IFNB1b in patients with a first event suggestive of MS., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Aim: The REbif FLEXible dosing in early MS (REFLEX) study compared several brain MRI outcomes in patients presenting with clinically isolated syndromes suggestive of multiple sclerosis and treated with two dose-frequencies of subcutaneous interferon (IFN) β-1a or placebo., Methods: Patients were randomised (1:1:1) to IFN β-1a, 44 µg subcutaneously three times a week or once a week, or placebo three times a week for up to 24 months. MRI scans were performed every 3 months, or every 6 months if the patient developed clinically definite multiple sclerosis. End points analysed included: number of combined unique active lesions per patient per scan; numbers and volumes of new T2, T1 hypointense and gadolinium-enhancing (Gd+) lesions per patient per scan; and brain volume., Results: 517 patients were randomised (intent-to-treat population: subcutaneous IFN β-1a three times a week, n=171; subcutaneous IFN β-1a once a week, n=175; placebo, n=171). Combined unique active lesions were lower in patients treated with subcutaneous IFN β-1a versus placebo (mean (SD) lesions per patient per scan: three times a week 0.6 (1.15); once a week 1.23 (4.26); placebo 2.70 (5.23); reduction versus placebo: three times a week 81%; once a week 63%; p<0.001) and with three times a week versus once a week (48% reduction; p=0.002). The mean numbers of new T2, T1 hypointense and Gd+ lesions were all significantly lower in the two active treatment arms compared with placebo (p≤0.004 for three times a week or once a week) and in the three times a week group compared with once a week (p≤0.012)., Conclusions: Both subcutaneous IFN β-1a 44 µg regimens improved MRI outcomes versus placebo, with the three times a week regimen having a more pronounced effect than once a week dosing., Trial Registration: clinicaltrial.gov identifier, NCT00404352.

Objectives: To develop prognostic models for time to 12-month remission and time to treatment failure after initiating antiepileptic drug monotherapy for generalised and unclassified epilepsy., Methods: We analysed data from the Standard and New Antiepileptic Drug (arm B) study, a randomised trial that compared initiating treatment with lamotrigine, topiramate and valproate in patients diagnosed with generalised or unclassified epilepsy. Multivariable regression modelling was used to investigate how clinical factors affect the probability of achieving 12-month remission and treatment failure., Results: Significant factors in the multivariable model for time to 12-month remission were having a relative with epilepsy, neurological insult, total number of tonic-clonic seizures before randomisation, seizure type and treatment. Significant factors in the multivariable model for time to treatment failure were treatment history (antiepileptic drug treatment prior to randomisation), EEG result, seizure type and treatment., Conclusions: The models described within this paper can be used to identify patients most likely to achieve 12-month remission and most likely to have treatment failure, aiding individual patient risk stratification and the design and analysis of future epilepsy trials.

Background and Purpose: The trend towards a shorter stay in rehabilitation clinic has implications for future language therapy. Constraint-induced aphasia therapy (CIAT) is administered 3 h per day for a total of 30 h of treatment. It was evaluated for patients with chronic aphasia. In the present study we investigated the efficacy of a modified CIAT schedule and included patients with sub-acute stroke. We conducted a randomised, single-blind, parallel-group study. The results were compared to those of patients who received identically intensive treatment focusing on conventional aphasia therapy., Methods: Fifty patients were treated with our modified version of CIAT and 50 received a standard aphasia therapy at the same intensity and duration. Inclusion criteria were clinical diagnosis of first-ever stroke, aphasia in the sub-acute stage and German speakers. Language function was evaluated using the Aachen Aphasia Test and the Communicative Activity Log directly before therapy onset, after the training period and at 8-week and 1-year follow-ups., Results: Patients of both groups improved significantly in all sub-tests of the Aachen Aphasia Test Battery. The improvements remained stable over a 1-year follow-up period. Patients and relatives of both groups rated daily communication as significantly improved after therapy., Conclusions: Both CIAT and conventional therapy performed with equal intensity are efficacious methods for patients with sub-acute aphasia. The modified CIAT schedule is practical in an everyday therapeutic setting. Our results indicate that a short-term intensive therapy schedule in the early aphasia stage leads to substantial improvements in language functions.

Objective: Previous observational studies reported beneficial effects of the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) on cognitive function, but results were inconsistent. We assessed the effect on cognition of a nutritional intervention using MedDiets in comparison with a low-fat control diet., Methods: We assessed 522 participants at high vascular risk (44.6% men, age 74.6 ± 5.7 years at cognitive evaluation) enrolled in a multicentre, randomised, primary prevention trial (PREDIMED), after a nutritional intervention comparing two MedDiets (supplemented with either extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) or mixed nuts) versus a low-fat control diet. Global cognitive performance was examined by Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Clock Drawing Test (CDT) after 6.5 years of nutritional intervention. Researchers who assessed the outcome were blinded to group assignment. We used general linear models to control for potential confounding., Results: After adjustment for sex, age, education, Apolipoprotein E genotype, family history of cognitive impairment/dementia, smoking, physical activity, body mass index, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, diabetes, alcohol and total energy intake, participants allocated to the MedDiet+EVOO showed higher mean MMSE and CDT scores with significant differences versus control (adjusted differences: +0.62 95% CI +0.18 to +1.05, p=0.005 for MMSE, and +0.51 95% CI +0.20 to +0.82, p=0.001 for CDT). The adjusted means of MMSE and CDT scores were also higher for participants allocated to the MedDiet+Nuts versus control (adjusted differences: +0.57 (95% CI +0.11 to +1.03), p=0.015 for MMSE and +0.33 (95% CI +0.003 to +0.67), p=0.048 for CDT). These results did not differ after controlling for incident depression., Conclusions: An intervention with MedDiets enhanced with either EVOO or nuts appears to improve cognition compared with a low-fat diet. ISRCTN:35739639.

Background: Fatigue is a common and troubling symptom for people with multiple sclerosis (MS)., Aim: To evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a six-session group-based programme for managing MS-fatigue (Fatigue: Applying Cognitive behavioural and Energy effectiveness Techniques to lifeStyle (FACETS))., Methods: Three-centre parallel arm randomised controlled trial with economic evaluation. Patients with MS and significant fatigue were randomised to FACETS plus current local practice (FACETS) or current local practice alone (CLP), using concealed computer-generated randomisation. Participant blinding was not possible. Primary outcomes were fatigue severity (Fatigue Assessment Instrument), self-efficacy (Multiple Sclerosis-Fatigue Self-Efficacy) and disease-specific quality of life (Multiple Sclerosis Impact Scale (MSIS-29)) at 1 and 4 months postintervention (follow-up 1 and 2). Quality adjusted life years (QALYs) were calculated (EuroQoL 5-Dimensions questionnaire and the Short-form 6-Dimensions questionnaire)., Results: Between May 2008 and November 2009, 164 patients were randomised; primary outcome data were available for 146 (89%). Statistically significant differences favour the intervention group on fatigue self-efficacy at follow-up 1 (mean difference (MD) 9, 95% CI (4 to 14), standardised effect size (SES) 0.54, p=0.001) and follow-up 2 (MD 6, 95% CI (0 to 12), SES 0.36, p=0.05) and fatigue severity at follow-up 2 (MD -0.36, 95% CI (-0.63 to -0.08), SES -0.35, p=0.01) but no differences for MSIS-29 or QALYs. No adverse events reported. Estimated cost per person for FACETS is £453; findings suggest an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of £2157 per additional person with a clinically significant improvement in fatigue., Conclusions: FACETS is effective in reducing fatigue severity and increasing fatigue self-efficacy. However, it is difficult to assess the additional cost in terms of cost-effectiveness (ie, cost per QALY) as improvements in fatigue are not reflected in the QALY outcomes, with no significant differences between FACETS and CLP. The strengths of this trial are its pragmatic nature and high external validity., Trial Registration: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN76517470.

Objectives: To investigate whether gravitational valves reduce the risk of overdrainage complications compared with programmable valves in ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt surgery for idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH)., Background: Patients with iNPH may benefit from VP shunting but are prone to overdrainage complications during posture changes. Gravitational valves with tantalum balls are considered to reduce the risk of overdrainage but their clinical effectiveness is unclear., Methods: We conducted a pragmatic, randomised, multicentre trial comparing gravitational with non-gravitational programmable valves in patients with iNPH eligible for VP shunting. The primary endpoint was any clinical or radiological sign (headache, nausea, vomiting, subdural effusion or slit ventricle) of overdrainage 6 months after randomisation. We also assessed disease specific instruments (Black and Kiefer Scale) and Physical and Mental Component Scores of the Short Form 12 (SF-12) generic health questionnaire., Results: We enrolled 145 patients (mean (SD) age 71.9 (6.9) years), 137 of whom were available for endpoint analysis. After 6 months, 29 patients in the standard and five patients in the gravitational shunt group developed overdrainage (risk difference -36%, 95% CI -49% to -23%; p<0.001). This difference exceeded predetermined stopping rules and resulted in premature discontinuation of patient recruitment. Disease specific outcome scales did not differ between the groups although there was a significant advantage of the gravitational device in the SF-12 Mental Component Scores at the 6 and 12 month visits., Conclusions: Implanting a gravitational rather than another type of valve will avoid one additional overdrainage complication in about every third patient undergoing VP shunting for iNPH.