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Derives three guidelines for management information systems (MIS) planning research by illustrating similarities between research streams of MIS planning and organizational strategic planning: recognition of MIS planning levels hierarchy and corresponding hierarchy in MIS planning benefits; specific attention to operationalization of constructs; adoption of overarching research framework. (50 references) (EJS)

Identifies organizational risks of end-user computing (EUC) associated with different stages of the end-user applications life cycle (analysis, design, implementation). Generic controls are identified that address each of the risks enumerated in a manner that allows EUC management to select those most appropriate to their EUC environment. (5 references) (EJS)

A series of articles addresses issues concerning decision support and knowledge based systems. Topics covered include knowledge-based systems for information centers; object oriented systems; strategic information systems case studies; user perception; manipulation of certainty factors by individuals and expert systems; spreadsheet program use; and group decision support systems. (CLB)

Despite advances in software development practices, organizations struggle to implement methodologies that match the risk in a project environment with needed coordination capabilities. Plan-driven and agile software development methodologies each have strengths and risks. However, most project environments cannot be classified as entirely "risky" or "stable," suggesting the need for hybrid approaches. We leverage a design science approach to implement a novel hybrid methodology based on concepts from the service-oriented paradigm. We motivate the approach using theory on interdependence and coordination, and design the methodology using theory on modularity and service-dominant logic. We also examine the effects of its adoption at a large electrical power company over a three-year period. The results imply that service-oriented theory should be applied to the human processes involved in systems development in order to achieve better fit between project risk, interdependencies, and the selected methodology(ies) in order to improve overall project performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information systems development (ISD) projects are prone to high levels of failure. One of the major reasons attributed to these failures is the inability to harmonize values held by a diverse set of participants in an environment that is characterized by uncertainty due to changing requirements. In this paper, we focus on a relational approach to achieve congruence between a project manager and a team member with respect to influence tactics. Constructs of perceptual congruence and communication congruence that reflect a level of agreement and degree of shared understanding between the project manager and team members are described. A congruence model is constructed and tied to an intermediate outcome variable of control loss. One hundred and thirteen dyadic pairs of project managers and team members are surveyed in order to test the model. The results indicate that having strong relational equity and common understanding can minimize control loss. It is important to consider the perspectives of both the project manager and a team member while formulating and assessing monitoring strategies to promote the success of an ISD project. Especially, encouraging team members to discuss disagreements constructively can motivate them to perform better and keep things under control. Finally, it is critical to address the performance problems as they occur rather than wait until the completion of the project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research emphasizing the need for more business knowledge in information technology (IT) units and more technical knowledge in line functions largely overlooks the question of when maintaining either form of such "peripheral" knowledge-a costly endeavor-is valuable. Further application and process novelty are increasingly unavoidable in systems development projects but remain largely overlooked in theory. It is plausible that one type of peripheral knowledge is valuable under one type of novelty but not the other.I develop the idea that discriminating alignment between project novelty and peripheral knowledge is needed for them to enhance systems development performance. Thus, the valuable type of peripheral knowledge depends on whether a project involves novelty in the project concept or in its development processes. Further, we lack an explanation for how such discriminating alignment translates into improved project performance. I develop and test a middle-range theory built around two ideas to address these gaps. First, alignment between project novelty and peripheral knowledge must be discriminating to enhance systems development performance. Second, such discriminating alignment accelerates design convergence, which in turn enhances systems development performance. Tests using data from 159 projects support the proposed ideas. The primary contribution of this paper is therefore explaining when and how alignment between project novelty and peripheral knowledge in IT and client departments enhances systems development performance. The key implication is that greater application domain knowledge in the IT unit (technical knowledge in the client department) enhances performance in projects involving greater application novelty (process novelty). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oftentimes researchers may not only generalize across a population, but may also extrapolate research findings across time. While either assumption can introduce difficulties, generalizing results in one time frame to another time frame may be especially perilous. We study a data exchange, and find that interventions designed to improve exchange features at two points in time have markedly varying effects, from an initial transaction use (time one) to a second transaction occurring two weeks later (time two). Our research objective is to test whether two system design features have the same effects on the intent to continue using an exchange in time two as they had in time one. The two features are control transparency (the availability of information cues) and interim shipping outcome feedback. These effects are mediated, in varying degrees, by perceived information quality. We use social exchange theory and social cognition theory to develop hypotheses regarding changes between time one (the first user transaction) and time two (the second transaction). These are tested using a combined experiment and survey. Supporting the theory, outcome feedback matters at time two even though it did not matter at time one. While control transparency has direct effects on a user's intent to continue use of the exchange in time one, its effects are reduced in time two if negative outcome feedback is communicated to the user. Outcome feedback's effects grow stronger from time one to time two vis-à-vis control transparency's effects. This underscores how critical it is to examine such phenomena at more than one period of time. The study also suggests different strategies for managing data exchanges based on the time frame of use. At the initial transaction use, the exchange should make transparent high-quality information cues to its user. At the next transaction, it should provide feedback showing properly fulfilled orders. These findings have implications for both future research examining effective data exchange design and for professionals who wish to enrich electronic data exchange interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although formal and informal control mechanisms are often simultaneously used to govern systems development projects, considerable disagreement exists about whether the use of one strengthens or diminishes the benefits of the other. In other words, are they complements or substitutes? Competing theoretical perspectives favor both sides of the argument, and neither the information systems (IS) controls literature nor the information technology (IT) outsourcing literature has addressed this issue. This study theoretically develops the idea that these competing perspectives are mutually compatible rather than contradictory because informal and formal control mechanisms can simultaneously be complements and substitutes. Using data from 120 outsourced systems development projects, it is shown that informal control mechanisms strengthen the influence of formal behavior control mechanisms on systems development ambidexterity (complementary effects) but weaken the influence of formal outcome control mechanisms (substitutive effects). The key contribution of the paper therefore lies in exploring interactions among control mechanisms in a project's control portfolio to reconcile the competing theoretical perspectives on whether formal and informal controls are complements or substitutes. The findings provide managers guidance on how to carefully combine formal and informal control mechanisms in a project. Combining informal with formal process-based control mechanisms can simultaneously enhance the fulfillment of project goals and development flexibility. However, combining informal with formal outcome-based control mechanisms can instead impair these objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the choice of control mechanisms in systems development projects has been extensively studied in prior research, differences in such choices across internal and outsourced projects and their effects on systems development performance have not received much attention. This study attempts to address this gap using data on 57 outsourced and 79 internal projects in 136 organizations. Our results reveal a paradoxical overarching pattern: controllers attempt greater use of control mechanisms in outsourced projects relative to internal projects, yet controls enhance systems development performance in internal projects but not in outsourced projects. We introduce a distinction between attempted control and realized control to explain this disconnect, and show how anticipated transaction hazards motivate the former but meeting specific informational and social prerequisites facilitate the latter. Our results contribute three new insights to the systems development control literature. First, controllers attempt to use controller-driven control mechanisms to a greater degree in outsourced projects but controllee-driven control mechanisms to a greater degree in internal projects. Second, we establish a hitherto-missing control--performance link. The nuanced differences in internal and outsourced projects simultaneously confirm and refute a pervasive assertion in the information systems controls literature that control enhances performance. Finally, we show how requirements volatility--which can be at odds with control--alters the control--performance relationships. Implications for theory and practice are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study synthesizes the research findings of 82 empirical studies on user participation in information systems development (ISD). Various ISD outcomes are addressed using a classification scheme involving two broad categories--attitudinal/behavioral outcomes and productivity outcomes. The results demonstrate that user participation is minimally-to-moderately beneficial to ISD; its effects are comparatively stronger on attitudinal/behavioral outcomes than on productivity outcomes. This attitudinal/behavioral impact may largely be the result of the emphasis that has been placed on user participation by academics and consultants. The results of this analysis are compared to those of a meta-analysis in the broader management context of participation. The results are similar in terms of attitudinal outcomes, but different, and lesser, in terms of productivity outcomes. Since the current status of research in the broad area of participation is that the effects of participation are considered to be problematic, that status and the results of this study suggest that user participation alone may not be sufficient to achieve significantly improved ISD outcomes, and that different strategies should be employed based on the specific goals of ISD projects. If system acceptance is the ultimate goal, user participation should be designed to induce more psychological involvement among potential users. If productivity benefits are the focus, user participation should be designed to provide developers the needed domain knowledge. In sum, user participation should be treated as one of a number of means for ISD projects to be more successful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the understudied issue of how individually held expertise in information systems development (ISD) teams results in creativity at the team level during the development process. We develop the idea that team creativity results primarily from integration of individually held expertise of team members at the team level. We further propose the quality of intrateam relationships and knowledge complementarities that align the work of individual team members at the project level influence creativity primarily through the process of expertise integration. We use data from a field study of 142 participants in 42 ISD projects to test the proposed model. The paper makes three new contributions to the IS literature. Its key contribution lies in developing an expertise integration view of team creativity. We demonstrate the centrality of integrating individually held tacit and explicit knowledge about the problem domain and the technology at the team level in achieving team creativity. The use of a process-focused conceptualization of team creativity is especially noteworthy here. The second contribution of the paper lies in conceptually developing and operationalizing the concept of expertise integration, a mechanism by which individually held knowledge is integratively applied at the project level. Although the importance of knowledge in the ISD process is widely recognized in prior research, this is the first study to develop the concept in a operationally meaningful way. The third key contribution lies in showing that the compositional and relational attributes of ISD project teams--diverse specialized knowledge in a team, the quality of intrateam working relationships, and members' cross-domain absorptive capacity--do not engender creativity by themselves; they do so primarily because they enhance integration of individual knowledge at the project level. We offer empirical evidence for such full mediation. These findings have important theoretical and practical implications, which are discussed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the job satisfaction of information technology (IT) professionals in an environment where computer aided software engineering (CASE) tools are used. Although the recent downturn in the economy might have temporarily eased the IT labor shortage, issues of recruitment and retention of qualified personnel are key to the success of IS development projects. This study presents a model of the combination of CASE tool usage and job satisfaction as related to internal career orientation. Two hypotheses based on this model were tested using empirical evidence collected through a survey method. The first examines whether the career orientation of IS personnel influences their job satisfaction. The second incorporates the impact of CASE tool usage on this relationship. The results indicate that in a CASE tool environment, personnel with a predominant technical career orientation have more job satisfaction than those with a predominant managerial orientation. However, there is a significant and positive synergy between the sophistication of the CASE tool used and managerial competence orientation leading to higher job satisfaction. These findings indicate that combating the IT personnel shortage through task automation may also increase worker satisfaction, thereby decreasing turnover. Careful selection of the CASE tool for use may result in this win-win situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study makes an initial attempt to validate an integrated, theoretically driven performance model of information systems (IS) projects. IS project performance is defined in terms of task, psychological, and organizational outcomes. We draw upon different theoretical perspectives including IS, organizational teams, and project management to link six categories of variables to IS project performance: technology characteristics, project characteristics, task characteristics, people characteristics, organizational characteristics, and work processes. Data collected via a field survey of IS project leaders in 84 manufacturing organizations were used to test the proposed model. Support is found for three conclusions: (1) IS project performance is a multidimensional construct, (2) certain preconditions falling into the above categories have to exist to achieve a high performing IS project, and (3) there is a possible cross-relationship among the variables studied by IS research, organizational teams research, and project management research. We discuss the implications of this study for future research and managerial practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eliciting requirements from users and other stakeholders is of central importance to information systems development. Despite this importance, surprisingly little research has measured the effectiveness of various requirements elicitation techniques. The present research first discusses theory relevant to information requirements determination in general and elicitation in particular. We then develop a model of the requirements elicitation process. This model and its underlying theory were then used to construct a new requirements elicitation prompting technique. To provide a context for testing the relative effectiveness of the new technique, two other questioning methodologies were also operationalized as prompting techniques: (1) the interrogatories technique, which involves asking "who," "what," "when," "where," "how," and "why" questions, and (2) a semantic questioning scheme, which involves asking questions based on a theoretical model of knowledge structures. To measure the usefulness of the prompting techniques in eliciting requirements, a set of generic requirements categories was adapted from previous research to capture requirements evoked by users. The effectiveness of the three methods in eliciting requirements for a software application was then tested in an experiment with users. Results showed that the new prompting technique elicited a greater quantity of requirements from users than did the other two techniques. Implications of the findings for research and systems analysis practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a four-tiered framework for classifying and understanding the myriad of information systems development methodologies that have been proposed in the literature. The framework is divided into four levels: paradigms, approaches, methodologies, and techniques. This paper primarily focuses on the two intermediate levels: approaches and methodologies. The principal contribution of the framework is in providing a new kind of "deep structure" for better understanding the intellectual core of methodologies and approaches and their interrelationships. It achieves this goal by articulating a parsimonious set of foundational features that are shared by subsets of methodologies and approaches. To illustrate how the framework's deep structure provides a better understanding of methodologies' intellectual core, it is applied to eleven examples. The paper also introduces and illustrates a procedure for "accommodating" and "assimilating" new information systems development methodologies in addition to the eleven already discussed. This procedure provides the framework with the necessary flexibility for handling the continuing proliferation of new methodologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Well-managed organizational memories have been emphasized in the recent management literature as important sources for business success. Organizational memory information systems (OMIS) have been conceptualized as a framework for information technologies to support these organizational memories. OMIS development may include several projects and may take many years. This paper classifies and analyzes OMIS development scenarios to provide guidance and support for OMIS development. This includes the definition of the roles of participants, a work schedule, and a definition of deliverables and deadlines. The mostly evolutionary nature of OMIS development requires that the results of these steps be monitored and adjusted when needed. Furthermore, a contingency framework and eight rules have been hypothesized, partially based on ex-post analysis of three cases (Veronica Broadcasting, Andersen Consulting, and Nationale-Nederlanden General Insurances). The paper provides concepts and a framework that may be an aid to research on refining the rules for analysis and design of OMIS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The availability of high-quality software is critical for the effective use of information technology in organizations. Research in software quality has focused largely on the technical aspects of quality improvement, while limited attention has been paid to the organizational and sociobehavioral aspects of quality management. This study represents one effort at addressing this void in the information systems literature. The quality and systems development literatures are synthesized to develop eleven quality management constructs and two quality performance constructs. Scales for these constructs are empirically validated using data collected from a national survey of IS organizations. A LISREL framework is used to test the reliability and validity of the thirteen constructs. The results provide support for the reliability and validity of the constructs. A cluster analysis of the data was conducted to examine patterns of association between quality management practices and quality performance. The results suggest that higher levels of institutionalization of all quality management practices are associated with higher levels of quality performance. The results also suggest that key factors that differentiated high- and low-quality performing IS units include senior management leadership, mechanisms to promote learning and the management infrastructure of the IS unit. Future research efforts directed at causally interrelating the quality management practices should lead to the development of a theory of quality management in systems development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many proposed contingencies regarding the conditions when the use of prototyping will lead to successful system development appear in the literature. Using an industry survey, this exploratory study empirically investigates the effect of certain contingencies on system success. Overall, results indicate that five variables, when combined with prototyping, affect system success (as indicated by user satisfaction): innovativeness of the project, impact of the system on the organization, user participation, number of users, and developer experience with prototyping. These results provide some insight into the proper uses of prototyping to improve system success. The results also indicate that several of the current contingencies, if followed, do not ensure high levels of system success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to increased organizational dependence on information systems technology, the effectiveness of the systems analyst is more crucial today than ever. Despite technological advances that have increased the number and quality of tools available to systems analysts, the individual analyst's problem-solving skills remain key to defining good systems requirements. Understanding how expert analysts approach the requirements analysis task may provide insights for improving the effectiveness of novice analysts. This paper examines differences in the problem-solving approaches of novice and expert systems analysts during an information requirements task. Specific weaknesses that set novice and expert analysts apart are identified, and techniques that may be used to strengthen novice skills are suggested. This research supports the current literature on creativity techniques as a strategy for strengthening system analysis skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past MIS research has indicated a mixed relationship between user participation and user satisfaction with system development projects, suggesting that user participation is not equally effective in all situations. This has led researchers to investigate the contexts within which user participation can be used to improve user satisfaction. This study builds on this past body of research by examining the relationship between specific user participative behaviors and user satisfaction in different contextual situations in order to identify the most successful participative behaviors. To do this, data were collected from 151 independent system development projects in eight different organizations. The context of development was described by two factors--task complexity and system complexity. As suggested in the literature, the combination of these two contextual factors determine the need for user participation. The relationship between specific participative behaviors and user satisfaction was then examined where the need for participation was high and those results were compared with situations with a lower need for participation. Not all participative behaviors were equally effective in all situations. Depending on the level of task complexity and system complexity, some user participative behaviors resulted in improved user satisfaction, while others had no relationship with satisfaction. The results add to earlier studies by identifying those specific user participative behaviors most beneficial under different contexts. The implications apply to both practitioners involved in the development of systems and academicians seeking to explain where and how user participation should be used. Strategies based on the results are suggested for the most appropriate involvement for users during system development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increases in employee autonomy and the formation of teams often result from reengineering and process innovation efforts, as do moves to "downsize" or "flatten" organizations. Information systems departments have not been insulated from these trends. In spite of the rising interest in these initiatives, little is known about their impact on the systems development process. Past research in blue-collar contexts suggests that teams produce improvements in performance, while anecdotal evidence in the IS industry suggests that such improvements may never materialize. This paper reports on research conducted with 231 IS professionals from 27 systems development teams across 13 organizations. The results indicate that, while autonomy may lead to increased levels of satisfaction and motivation, the level of team development and an organization's learning capacity may be more important in achieving improved work outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the introduction and use of a wide variety of system development methods and tools, software projects are still plagued by time and cost overruns, and unmet user requirements. To avoid these problems, it is frequently recommended that the risk associated with a software project be managed. A task that is critical to the proper management of software development risk is the assessment of the risks facing the project. Based on previous research, this paper proposes a definition and a measure of software development risk. Subsequently, data collected in a survey of 120 projects is used to assess the reliability and validity of the instrument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The systems development process involves establishing the information requirements of an application and successively transforming those requirements into a computer-based model of the application. Attention is usually focused almost exclusively on the method of transformation, however, with little recognition of the role of the application. As a first step in examining the relevance of knowledge of the application to the systems development process, this study addresses whether there are synergistic effects of application and methodology knowledge in specifying information requirements. This was achieved via a repeated-measures protocol analysis study that manipulated both experience with the application and knowledge of the methodology. The results show that in learning to specify information requirements, novice analysts: performed more effectively over time when trained to use a methodology applied the methodology more effectively when familiar with the application; performed more effectively when they used procedural methodology knowledge rather than declarative methodology knowledge alone; improved the effectiveness of their problem solving over time only when they used procedural methodology knowledge; produced idiosyncratic results based on the application. Based on the findings of this research, it appears that research into the nature of applications, as well as methodologies, is warranted. From the viewpoint of the practitioner, since application knowledge is idiosyncratic, it may be necessary to include more than one application-knowledgable person on a systems development team. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research on the development of information systems has focused on the conflicts among participants and the consequences of satisfactory resolution of those conflicts. In this paper, we test a model of conflict during system development [40,41]. As specified, the model proposed relationships among participation, influence, conflict, and conflict resolution. We extend the model to include project success as an outcome variable. A sample of 84 participants in 17 system development projects in 3 organizations was surveyed. Results support the portions of the model reported earlier [41], show a strong positive relationship between conflict resolution and project success, and show a modest positive relationship between participation and project success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many alternative approaches have been devised for eliciting information systems requirements. The majority of these approaches, however, assume a familiarity with and understanding of the organizational context by those individuals from whom requirements are to be derived. Such approaches often yield unsatisfactory results when the information system being developed involves ill-structured task contexts. The generation of a robust set of information items can be an important first step in the specification of information requirements. Scenario-based approaches to generate information items for requirements analysis appear intuitively promising as a mechanism for promoting the elicitation of information requirements for ill-structured task contexts. However, little empirical evidence exists regarding their potential effectiveness. This paper proposes the use of mental imagery as a scenario-based technique and reports on the results of an exploratory laboratory experiment that compared a mental imagery approach with goal-oriented and critical success factors approaches in the generation of information items. The results of this experiment provide modest evidence that positive and negative mental imagery protocols may both outperform goal-oriented and critical success factors approaches for ill-structured task contexts. Further, the strongest results were observed to favor the positive imagery protocol. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings and suggestions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge-based systems are widely used for decision support system and expert system applications. However, they are not a panacea for all business problems. Thorough requirements analysis methods must determine the need for knowledge-based systems vis-á-vis alternative information system designs. Furthermore, knowledge-based systems are often used as embedded subsystems within larger organizational information systems. Rigorous design methods must support the development of complex information systems with integrated, heterogeneous subsystems, including knowledge-based subsystems. In this paper, we demonstrate that the box structure methods of information systems development support both the requirements analysis of knowledge-based systems and the design of embedded knowledgebased systems. An extended example is presented to show the use of the box structure methods in the development of a financial planning system that requires embedded knowledge-based system components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the use of systems development as a methodology in information systems (is) research is described and defended. A framework to explain the nature of systems development as a research methodology in is research is proposed. Use of this methodology in the engineering field in general is compared with its use specifically in computer science and computer engineering. An integrated program for conducting IS research that incorporates theory building, systems development, experimentation, and observation is proposed. Progress in several application domains is reviewed to provide a basis upon which to argue that systems development is a valid research methodology. A systems development research process is presented from a methodological perspective. Software engineering, which is the basic method of applying the systems development research methodology, is then discussed. It is the authors' belief that systems development and other research methodologies are complementary and that an integrated multi-dimensional and multimethodological approach will generate fruitful is research results. The premise is that research contributions can result from systems development, experimentation, observation, and performance testing of the systems under development and that all of these research approaches are needed to investigate different aspects of the research question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses systems development in the context of problem solving strategies. A theoretical basis for the two dominant problem-solving approaches (SDLC and prototyping) is presented along with the results of a field study of the effectiveness of the strategies in fourth-generation language environments. Results from the study indicate the appropriateness of a mixed development strategy contingent on system type. Implications for future research on systems development are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A measure for classifying programmer/analysts based on the tasks they perform is proposed. A questionnaire, including the measure and measures of work satisfaction, job characteristics, role perceptions, and user interaction characteristics, was administered to over 250 subjects in a manufacturing firm. The results indicated that the task differences measure could be used to classify programmer/analysts into four groups—development/programmers, development/analysts, maintainers, and supporters. In addition, significant differences among the groups in skill variety, role ambiguity, and amount of user interaction were found. Implications of the results for those interested in redesigning the jobs of programmer/analysts are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Requirement analysis is the first step in the development of information systems, and its objective is to ensure that any proposed system meets the projected requirements of the user. As a part of this requirement analysis, an analyst is asked to verify that any proposed system is representationally accurate in deriving the needed information and to validate such a system against the time and resource requirements specified by the user. This article performs both the representational verification and dynamic performance validation by expressing the information system, current or proposed, in the form of a Petri Net and using its structural characteristics to perform a set of static and dynamic checks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many important strategic applications involve inter-corporate linkage or intra-corporate integration of information. This requires multiple databases to work together. We refer to this category of information systems as Composite Information Systems (CIS). Migrating from separate systems to a more fully integrated CIS environment is usually a difficult, expensive, and time-consuming process both due to technical and organizational realities. An evolutionary approach is presented in this paper to meet the challenge. The essence of this approach is captured in four CIS principles: (1) the separation of data from processing; (2) the use of flexible tools; (3) the use of interfaces that facilitate data conversion and communication between processing components and databases; and (4) the explicit recognition of the ClS environment. Based on these principles, we delineate five stages of evolution, which may co-exist: (1) separate systems; (2) virtual-driver; (3) logical separation; (4) physical separation; and (5) specialized functional engine. The opportunities for strategic uses of information technology in organizations are often blocked by the difficulties of getting from the current state to the desired situation. The evolutionary process presented in this article has been found to be effective in overcoming this problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has long been recognized that decision support systems (DSS) should be developed using an evolutionary approach by which users are provided with prototypical systems so that they can respond to specific design characteristics. While this approach generally works well in practice, there remains the problem of where to begin, especially if the designer does not have much experience. Based on limited field studies, we find that preferences for information, both in terms of the content and the format of the data, vary with decision focus (tactical vs. strategic), environmental stability, and, in some cases, experience. These results suggest that, if it is possible to determine the context and decision-maker attributes, it is possible to have a clearer notion of what information to include in the decision support system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While prototyping has become an important topic in systems analysis and design, several questions remain unanswered. This paper addresses issues related to the implementation and function of prototyping in the traditional systems development life cycle. A definition of prototyping and a theoretical justification of the approach are developed. Finally, a model is presented which assists analysts and users in determining when, and to what extent, to use prototyping either along with or as a replacement for traditional systems development techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is argued that information systems should be treated as any other input into the firm's production process and, as such, should be selected based on their contribution to the profit of the firm. It is argued that the present systems development life cycle (SDLC) heuristics lead to systems which are feasible and satisficing, but do not lead to a profit maximizing design. An alternative strategy—profit-maximizing systems development life cycle (PMAX-SDLC)—is proposed which is based on the use of process models. These models have their origin in the economics literature and were developed to accurately characterize engineering production processes. Although PMAX-SDLC is more complex than the current SDLC, several empirical conjectures are presented which would support the notion that the potential benefits of redirecting management information systems (MIS) research toward optimal systems design could be large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of an information system requires four main activities that must be carried out during the systems development life cycle (SDLC): feasibility study/analysis, design, technical construction, and implementation. This paper examines the conditions under which information systems (IS) specialists and users should assume responsibility and decision-making authority during the SDLC. A contingency model is presented that recommends the type of responsibility and authority roles that users should assume during the SDLC to minimize the risk and uncertainty inherent in developing computer-based systems. The contingency model developed in this paper builds upon the situational characteristics of information system complexity, is department experience, and user past experience in system development. According to the model, certain system factors and systems development experiences require that the user become involved by exercising heavy responsibility and authority roles, while other situational factors suggest light user leadership. The concept of SDLC leadership as responsibility and authority is developed and its meaning for users during each state of the SDLC is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous firms experience rapid changes in information needs in today's dynamic business environments. Many of the traditional systems development life-cycle (SDLC) approaches to systems design do not provide for incorporating changes to proposed designs during development of the information system. The sequential approach taken with these traditional life-cycle methodologies can lead to the failure of the information system in a volatile situation. This paper examines past SDLC approaches, proposes an approach which incorporates flexibility into the design process and provides an example illustrating the application of the proposed methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is a mistake to categorize decision support systems (DSS) as just another recent variant of traditional computer-based information systems. While traditional computer-based information systems are oriented toward performing structured processing tasks and producing regular reports, DSS have the purpose of supporting nonroutine activities and evolving in response to user learning. Thus a different subset of factors should be considered when developing a decision support system. This paper proposes and defines a conceptual model of DSS development whose origins are based on an open systems approach and whose components capture technical, behavioral, and organizational aspects of the development process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A severalfold increase in productivity is being accomplished today by a combination of various techniques called summarily "fourth generation" methods. An investigation of six success stories, based on a series of interviews, is presented, and reasons for success are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past several decades, generations of development tools have evolved to improve the productivity of system development and increase the impact of information systems on improvement of management practice. The solution techniques include the continuum from development guidelines to comprehensive tool environments. Methods and procedures have been considered that range from end-user development support to large-scale systems automation approaches for support of the entire systems development process. In this paper definition techniques, software engineering, and end-user development approaches are discussed. Data Dictionaries, value-added dictionaries and directories, requirements database systems, and emerging "system encyclopedias" are discussed as keys to many of the evolving system development environments. The Fourth Generation approaches and the Information Center concept are presented as frameworks for developing an end-user computing capability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]