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• Flume experiments were conducted to assess the impact of submerged flexible vegetation on regular wave attenuation and beach morphology. • The presence of vegetation prevented further erosion of the beach, resulting in a reduction of 7% to 63% in experiments. • The attenuation caused by vegetation results in the wave breaking point being closer to the shoreline on vegetated sand, leading to shoreline retreat. • A dimensionless equation was developed to characterize the behaviour of the cross-shore beach profile under the protection of flexible vegetation. Coastal protection methods are evolving from hard engineering techniques to natural enhancement approaches. Aquatic vegetation provides an environmentally friendly solution by effectively dissipating waves and resisting erosion. Laboratory flume experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of submerged flexible vegetation on the regular wave attenuation and cross-shore profiles on the artificial plane beach under varying hydraulic conditions. Variations in the waveform, wave spectrum, and wave height were analysed in the vegetation zone. Results show vegetation distorts the waveform and accelerates the attenuation process of the wave energy, and wave height evolution behaves differently from the theoretically obtained attenuation by Mendez and Losada (2004) due to the underestimating vegetation-induced attenuation and neglecting sediment-induced attenuation. Additionally, the formation process of the winter and summer profiles of the vegetated beach was analysed by the screenshots. Regenerated wave breaking becomes more apparent with increasing wave periods. The critical surf similarity parameter of the vegetated beaches was found to be lower than that of a smooth, impermeable slope because of the energy dissipation. Vegetation did not alter the type of the beach profiles, as compared to the final profiles and their characteristic parameters of the unvegetated beaches. Instead, it reduced the erosion depth and brought the eroded area closer to the shoreline. Dimensionless parameters were formulated to characterize the response of the cross-shore beach profile under the shelter of flexible vegetation, and an empirical equation about maximum erosion depth was developed within the scope of the experiment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Hydrological and erosive response at event scale for a recently burned catchment. • Comparison of two hydrological models, OpenLISEM and MOHID Land. • Parametrization based on variation in boundary conditions characterizing each event. • Models performance revealed the importance of subsurface flow at event scale. • Ash and sediment movement during large event needs different model parameterization. Wildfires are a source of instability for the natural water cycle in forested watersheds, endangering the water quantity and quality reaching downstream water bodies. The faster hydrological response of a burned area leads to increased runoff and transport of sediment and ash particles during and after rainfall events. Therefore, the use of an adequate spatiotemporal resolution in hydrological models is necessary to properly estimate post-fire impacts. Especially when addressing hydrological events such as flash floods and debris flows, which are highly unpredictable and are characterized by short duration and high impact outside the burned area. This study aims to compare the ability of two hydrological models to simulate the hydrological response and sediment transport during the first year after a fire to ultimately understand which one would best serve as a post-fire hydrological predicting tool at event scale. To achieve this goal, OpenLISEM, an event-based hydrological model, and MOHID Land, a continuous model with variable timestep, were compared. Driven by several limitations identified in previous modeling exercises at this scale during the calibration phase, this work performed a parametrization through the variation in boundary conditions characterizing each event. OpenLISEM and MOHID Land models exhibited similar capabilities in simulating runoff during the first post-fire year. However, the larger erosion input parameters required by MOHID Land increase the complexity of erosion prediction and increase equifinality. In addition, MOHID Land limited capacity to perform sensitivity and uncertainty analyses emerged as a major disadvantage, hindering the assessment of the reliability of the model's predictions. Despite its limitations for not integrating subsurface flow and base flow, OpenLISEM is the most suitable model for assessing post-fire impacts on runoff and sediment production at the event scale, because of its ease of implementation and its reduced computational requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Distribution of vegetation avoided erosion in China increased by 12.89% in 1990–2020. • Greening of the surface has significantly prevented soil and water loss. • Spatial distribution roughly conforms to the division of the Hu Huanyong line. • Surface greening promotes a increase in vegetation avoided erosion efficiency. Global surface greening is very important to slow down regional warming, promote ecological balance and sustainable development, and China has made a significant contribution to this in the past 30 years, and effectively alleviated environmental problems such as land degradation, water shortage and air pollution by rapidly increasing vegetation coverage. Previous studies have shown that vegetation plays a positive role in alleviating soil erosion, but there is no quantitative description of runoff erosion and sediment transport under vegetation evolution with long time series and high resolution in China area. In this study, we use the RUSLE model and multi-source satellite remote sensing data to simulate overland soil erosion in China from 1990 to 2020 and analyze both the temporal and spatial variation of vegetation avoided erosion (VAE) and its correlation with multiple driving factors, such as Gross Primary Production (GPP). The results show that: 1)The distribution has increased by 12.89 % from 1990 to 2020, which is significant, and indicates that greening of the surface has significantly prevented soil and water loss;2)The spatial correlation strength of VAE-GPP in China is roughly in line with the division of the Hu Huanyong line (Hu-line), which is the result of the combined effect of vegetation distribution and human activities;3)The efficiency of VAE was significantly improved, especially the forest, accounting for about 76.50 % of the total, which was twice the sum of the other types. The research conclusion is of great significance to soil erosion prevention and control, soil ecological improvement, vegetation dynamic planning and regional sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Human interventions affect the dynamics of meandering channels. • Unusual inner bank erosion and outer bank deposition occurred due to upstream damming. • Altered flow-sediment regimes and channel boundary drive the unusual meander dynamics. Human activities, such as reservoir construction and bank revetment, significantly alter downstream flow and sediment regimes and river channel changes, impacting river ecosystem services. However, our understanding of how intense human activities affect morphodynamics of meandering channels in big river systems remains incomplete due to the lack of high-resolution in-situ data. Here, we use comprehensive data encompassing hydrology and sediment, historical channel maps, and high-resolution river bathymetry to investigate the evolution of meandering bends in the Middle Yangtze River (MYR) across three distinct phases: the natural period (1490–1975), the bank revetment period (1975–2002), and the post-dam period (2003–2018). The study revealed that, in the absence of human intervention, the meandering channels of the MYR naturally experienced inner bank deposition and outer bank erosion, largely governed by curvature-induced secondary flow patterns in flow and sediment transport mode. In 1975–2002, outer-bank revetments reduced erodibility, stabilizing outer banks, while inner banks continued to experience lateral and vertical deposition, causing a narrower and deeper channel hydraulic geometry. Conversely, meandering bends had exhibited an unusual pattern of 'outer bank deposition and inner bank erosion' in 2003–2018. Channel morphological changes characterized by channel incision and widening were driven by changes from erodible bank boundaries to solidified bank boundaries, substantial reduction in suspended sediment concentration, and an altered and extended effective flow range (10,000–25,000 m3/s). Our findings highlight that human interventions such as damming and bank revetments can alter the conventional erosion–deposition morphodynamics of meandering bends in large river systems, carrying vital implications for sustainable river management in the Anthropocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A new 2D meshless bedload sediment transport model is developed based on ESPH. • A formulation for calculating the time step size for an HLLC Riemann solver in a weakly coupled approach is proposed. • The simulated results based on the developed 2D ESPH-SW-BST model show good agreement with the measured results. • A particle configuration of eight interacting particles can yield more accurate predictions of erosion peaks in cases with significant lateral flow effects. A 2D Eulerian meshless bedload sediment transport model is developed using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) to simulate rapidly varied flows over mobile beds. In the developed model, we adopt a weakly coupled numerical approach to explicitly solve the governing equations, including 2D shallow water equations for fluid flow motion and the Exner equation for bed sediment movement at the same time step. A defined virtual bedload velocity in a weakly coupled approach is involved in the calculation of time step sizes. However, nonphysical virtual bedload velocities, which often occur in cases with nearly flat beds, require extremely small time step sizes. A formulation of the lower and upper bounds of information propagation speeds for an HLLC approximate Riemann solver is thus proposed to remedy the problem. Four case studies involving dam break flows in prismatic and erodible channels, knickpoint migration, dam erosion due to overtopping flow and dam-break flow in an erodible channel with an abrupt expansion are adopted to validate the developed model. In addition, to compare the performances of different particle interaction configurations under Cartesian uniform particle arrangements, four and eight interacting particles are obtained by changing the smoothing length. Against the measured results, the case of eight interacting particles shows more accurate predictions of erosion peaks along the measured cross-sections because the lateral flows are significant. The good agreement between the simulated and measured results shows that the developed 2D Eulerian SPH bedload sediment transport model with eight interacting particles is well suited for simulating complicated flow-induced bed erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A strong signal of reduced winter conditions i.e. duration, snow accumulation and frost days. • Hydroclimatic regime shift alters the sediment flux seasonality in near future. • Thaw-seasons have important role controlling the annual sediment flux. Climate change alters high latitude hydrological cycle by diminishing the snow accumulation and spring flood magnitude, and by altering temperature and rainfall finally leading to hydroclimatic regime shift from snow-dominated to rain-dominated. These changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and discharge strongly influence geomorphological processes in fluvial environments, leading to alterations in sediment transport, erosion, accumulation, and landscape changes. We conducted comprehensive analysis of hydroclimatic trends and shifts on boreal Oulanka River system, spanning over the past five decades. A strong signal of warming temperatures (+0.61 Celsius/decade), reduced winter conditions and warmer summers (+0.41 Celsius/decade) was detected. The spring flood magnitude diminished 7 %, but high discharge peaks (Q > annual p90m3/s) during other seasons increased 22 % together with 28 % increase of annual minimum discharge. Simultaneously, precipitation intensity increased during summer. The meander migration rate (mean 0.89 or 2.55 m/year) and bank erosion volume were interconnected to ground frost, high snow sum, high discharge, and high-water level during spring flood, but no significant long-term trends were observed. Our findings underscore that climate is the first-order control on fluvial geomorphology and emphasizes the complex interplay between various hydrological and climatic factors that shape the dynamics of river systems. Based on the results, we expect to see changes in the spatial–temporal distribution of high latitude rivers sediment flux in future. In addition, more attention should be addressed to the thaw seasons controlling the sediment transport, as majority of the observed shifts took place in these months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• 24,918 Landsat images focused on the lower Yellow River were used to monitor SSC during the period 1997–2020. • The proposed HGAR method significantly outperforms other retrieval methods in terms of retrieval accuracy. • HGAR is a reliable method for SSC retrieval and can be used for long-term monitoring of SSCs. Monitoring suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs) of channel waters is essential for evaluating important issues such as erosion, sediment transport and deposition, reservoir siltation, and water pollution throughout watersheds. Remote sensing technology provides a new approach to large-scale SSC monitoring, but the accuracy of existing retrieval methods based on remote sensing technology still needs to be improved for complex environments. This study proposes a new hyperparameter and globally adaptive retrieval (HGAR) method for river SSC retrieval that combines a remote sensing technique and machine learning methods. The HGAR method uses the light gradient-boosting machine method as the basic model for SSC retrieval, and the tree-structured Parzen estimator method, coefficient of determination, and residual prediction deviation are combined to optimize the basic model's hyperparameters. The experiment was conducted in the lower Yellow River, where 24,918 Landsat images from 1997 to 2020 were acquired using Google Earth Engine, and 1,772 monthly cloud-free images were obtained in the end. The sequential backward floating selection method was adopted to determine the optimal modeling features. Two regression and three machine learning methods were compared with the proposed method. The results demonstrate that the proposed HGAR method significantly outperforms other retrieval methods in terms of retrieval accuracy (as evidenced by a correlation coefficient of 0.626 and a Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient of 0.613), generalizability, and robustness. Finally, the model explanation results show that the HGAR method can successfully capture the key information for SSC retrieval and has higher flexibility than traditional statistical models. In addition, we found that the overall fit and the fit of local extreme values are inconsistent in the lower Yellow River, and the proposed improved accuracy indicator balances the two aspects well. In conclusion, the proposed HGAR method can be used effectively to estimate channel SSC and is expected to provide technical support for long-term and large-scale monitoring of the channel surface SSC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Two crucial periods for suspended sediment transport were June and November/December. • Analysis of 236 floods highlighted their intermittency and did not show relationships. • Medium-term continuous time series are necessary to assess range of variations of SSF. Abstract In mountainous catchments, soil erosion and sediment transport are highly variable throughout time and their quantification remains a major challenge for the scientific community. Understanding the temporal patterns and the main controls of sediment yields in these environments requires a long term monitoring of rainfall, runoff and sediment flux. This paper analyses this type of data collected during 7 years (2007–2014), at the outlet of the Galabre River, a 20 km2 watershed, in south eastern France, representative of meso-scale Mediterranean mountainous catchments. This study is based on a hybrid approach using continuous turbidity records and automated total suspended solid sampling to quantify the instantaneous suspended sediment concentrations (SSC), sediment fluxes, event loads and yields. The total suspended sediment yield was 4661 Mg km−2 and was observed during flood events. The two crucial periods for suspended sediment transport at the outlet were June and November/December (63% of the total). The analysis of suspended sediment transport dynamics observed during 236 flood events highlighted their intermittency and did not show any clear relationship between rainfall, discharge and SSC. The most efficient floods were characterised by counter-clockwise hysteresis relationships between SSC and discharges. The floods with complex hysteresis were the more productive in the long term, during this measuring period exceeding a decade. Nevertheless, the current research outlines the need to obtain medium-term (five years) continuous time series to assess the range of variations of suspended sediment fluxes and to outline clearly the seasonality of suspended sediment yields. Results suggest the occurrence of a temporal dis-connectivity in meso-scale catchments over short time-scales between the meteorological forcing and the sediment yields estimated at the outlet. These findings have important methodological impacts for modelling and operational implications for watershed management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bedforms like ripples are widely distributed in the coastal zone. They influence the bed roughness thus the estimation of bed shear stress and associated sediment transport. An echo sounder was mounted on a bottom-supported tripod intended to measure the erosion and deposition of seabed in the subaqueous Yellow River Delta, China. However, variations in bed elevation are found to be not the net erosion or deposition at the observation site, but the migration of silt ripples which were generated by waves and pushed back and forth or flattened off by the tidal currents. Ripple heights were observed to be within 0.1–0.7 cm and were used for testing the model of Nielsen (1981). The model overestimated the height of silt ripples as it was developed for sands, but the deviation can be well addressed by incorporating a linear modification (R 2 = 0.79). Alternatively, a new model specifically for silt ripple height was regressed from the field data with R 2 up to 0.78. The existence of silt ripples increases the bed shear stress by 4 times due to the additional bed roughness. A "fluffy layer" overlies the consolidated seabed, therefore, net seabed erosion occurs after the "fluffy layer" is resuspended. A representative critical bed shear stress for net seabed erosion in the study area was found to be 0.8 Pa. The echo sounder can be an alternative tool for observing silt ripples in coastal regions like the Yellow River Delta where the water is too turbid for underwater videos. The proposed model infers silt-ripple features from bed grain size and flow condition and provides a quick estimate for bed roughness improving the understanding on sediment transport. • A new model for silt ripple height is proposed based on field observation. • Bed shear stress is better estimated by incorporating bed roughness due to silt ripple. • Critical shear stress for erosion is inferred from field observations. • Echo sounder is used for observing silt ripples in turbid waters. • Ripple height is inferred from field-measured bed elevations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sediment connectivity has been shown in recent years to explain how the watershed configuration controls sediment transport. However, we find no studies develop a watershed erosion modeling framework based on sediment connectivity, and few, if any, studies have quantified sediment connectivity for gently rolling systems. We develop a new predictive sediment connectivity model that relies on the intersecting probabilities for sediment supply, detachment, transport, and buffers to sediment transport, which is integrated in a watershed erosion model framework. The model predicts sediment flux temporally and spatially across a watershed using field reconnaissance results, a high-resolution digital elevation models, a hydrologic model, and shear-based erosion formulae. Model results validate the capability of the model to predict erosion pathways causing sediment connectivity. More notably, disconnectivity dominates the gently rolling watershed across all morphologic levels of the uplands, including, microtopography from low energy undulating surfaces across the landscape, swales and gullies only active in the highest events, karst sinkholes that disconnect drainage areas, and floodplains that de-couple the hillslopes from the stream corridor. Results show that sediment connectivity is predicted for about 2% or more the watershed’s area 37 days of the year, with the remaining days showing very little or no connectivity. Only 12.8 ± 0.7% of the gently rolling watershed shows sediment connectivity on the wettest day of the study year. Results also highlight the importance of urban/suburban sediment pathways in gently rolling watersheds, and dynamic and longitudinal distributions of sediment connectivity might be further investigated in future work. We suggest the method herein provides the modeler with an added tool to account for sediment transport criteria and has the potential to reduce computational costs in watershed erosion modeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• High-turbidity events are triggered by wind waves with wind speeds of > 7 m s−1. • Sediment erosion and deposition are synchronous during HTEs. • Synchronism causes a near-lakebed turbid water layer and sustains the lutocline. High-turbidity events (HTEs) frequently occur in shallow lakes and can deeply influence lake ecosystems. However, the processes of sediment erosion and deposition are not fully understood. To investigate these processes, two investigative campaigns that integrate bed sediment measurements, sediment settling experiments, in-situ observations, or a hydrodynamics-sediment model were conducted to quantitatively study wind-induced HTEs in Lake Taihu, China. Cohesive sediments were massively entrained from the lakebed by wind waves when the wind speed exceeded its critical value of 7 m s−1, as estimated by water depth, triggering HTEs with turbidity waves of > 100 nephelometric turbidity units. The suspended sediment concentration was the net sediment flux of erosion (average: 5.9 mg m−2 s−1) and deposition (average: 5.5 mg m−2 s−1), which occurred synchronously for most of the HTEs and resulted in high temporal variation in suspended sediment concentration. This synchronism was determined by the critical erosional stress of lakebed sediments, which was spatially heterogeneous (0.017–0.055 N m−2) in a large lake. Equations for erosion and deposition processes were derived following the investigative campaigns and used to develop a cohesive sediment transport model for simulating HTEs in Lake Taihu. Simulations indicate that the synchronism of sediment erosion and deposition led to a near-lakebed turbid water layer during an HTE, which sustained the sediment lutocline in Lake Taihu. Further investigation should be conducted on the role of the near-lakebed turbid water layer during endogenous pollution in large eutrophic lakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• CA models for describing runoff are established based on three water distribution rules which significantly impact on confluence. • Dynamic erosion CA models are built by distinguish inter-rill, rill and gully erosions based on critical water depths. • CA models excellently reproduce the runoff and erosion in both the hillslope with rills and the watershed with gullies. • Remain average multi-flow directions algorithm performs the best in runoff and erosion predictions. Rainfall erosion has been calculated and predicted by various soil loss equations, but the progressions of overland flow and sediment transport are less dynamically described. In this study, cellular automata (CA) models based on single flow direction algorithm (SFD), average value multi-flow direction algorithm (AMFD) and remaining average value multi-flow direction algorithm (RAMFD) were constructed. Simultaneously, erosion model was constructed by dividing soil erosion into inter-rill, rill and gully erosions according to critical water depth. The CA models were validated at three scales: a theoretical slope, an in-situ model slope and the natural basin. The results demonstrated the efficient performance of RAMFD in the runoff ascension and recession stages while SFD and AMFD presented unconcentrated runoff distribution, especially in the in-situ slope and basin simulation. Besides, RAMFD model occurred sediment deposition in the basin upstream while SFD and AMFD presented continuous erosion. Furthermore, the runoff Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of three models were 0.85 ∼ 0.95 and 0.65 ∼ 0.94, and the erosion root mean square error (RMSE) were 0.5 ∼ 1.0 kg/min and 0.3 ∼ 0.45 102kg/min in the theoretical slope and natural basin, respectively. Meanwhile, the NSE and RMSE values of RAMFD exhibited the best performance, indicating that this model effectively balanced water distribution while controlling the flow direction to a greater extent. Overall, it is justified to develop an erosion prediction model based on the classification of erosion types, and the rules governing water flow allocation will inevitably result in qualitative and quantitative differences of runoff and erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer based landscape evolution models can provide insight into both erosion rates and processes (i.e. sheetwash, rill, gully erosion). One important data requirement of these models is long term, high quality, high-temporal resolution rainfall data (given that the physical nature of the erosion process is strongly related to rainfall). However, in many cases such data is limited - data is often short, incomplete or not of a sufficient temporal resolution. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the sensitivity of modelled erosion rates to small changes in rainfall input. To achieve this we firstly assess the existing rainfall data from an established weather station and secondly, stochastically generate rainfall time series based on the longest and most reliable rainfall data. We then test the sensitivity of different rainfall sequences on sediment output using a well-tested landscape evolution and sediment transport model (CAESAR-Lisflood) over a simulated period of 100 y on a proposed rehabilitated mine landform. It was found that each rainfall scenario produces a unique pattern of erosion (i.e. the location and extent of the gullies is variable). Further, each rainfall scenario produces a unique pattern of sediment output that suggests non-linear processes. Importantly, this is the first time stochastically generated rainfall has been employed in landform evolution modeling and provides a statistical approach to quantify sediment transport and landform evolution. The method demonstrates a risk based approach and allows rainfall, runoff and sediment transport studies to be conducted in data poor environments. The findings clearly demonstrate that rainfall variability can greatly affect sediment transport and form of erosion as well as landscape evolution. This information is of particular importance for the design and testing of rehabilitated landscape systems such as post-mining landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Physically based 2D hydrodynamic and sediment transport model, CCHE2D. • High resolution mesh, topography photogrammetry, experimental landform evolution. • Watershed hydrology, raindrop soil detachment, displacement, erosion and transport. • Distributed solution, tilled watershed, cornfield tillage ridge and furrow morphology. • Simulated runoff, sediment transport, landform evolution; channel network analysis. Soil and gully erosion is a critical threat to sustainable agricultural land management and productivity. Soil erosion by rain splash, sheet runoff, and concentrated flow are complex problems conditioned by the combined interactions of soil physical properties, hydrology, human activity, landscape topography, and climate. Effective management of erosion processes driven by rainfall and surface runoff requires a combined effort of field observation, physical experimentation, and numerical simulation. A physically-based hydrodynamic numerical model, CCHE2D with updated raindrop erosion effects, is applied to simulate landscape evolution processes as a result of raindrop impact and overland flow. The numerical model simulates a thin layer of runoff and concentrated flow over complex terrains, and predicts sediment transport due to raindrop splash detachment, transport and soil surface erosions. Soil erosion and landform evolution simulations due to rainfall are presented for an experimental landscape and a tilled large scale agricultural field. Photogrammetric field data were collected using an unmanned aerial system (UAS) following planting and subsequent rainstorms. Numerical simulation results agreed well with the observed experimental soil surface topography, sediment yield, and drainage network developments. The simulated soil and gully erosion in the tilled field also agreed well with observations. This research successfully demonstrates how high resolution spatial and temporal topographic measurements in experimental and field landscapes can be simulated and interrogated by 2D physically-based hydrodynamic and morphodynamic models. The accurate predictions of tillage field and gully erosion process in agriculture watersheds with complex tillage conditions also indicated the usefulness of the model for studying soil and landscape degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Review of hydro-morphological responses to LULC and climate changes. • The first review paper of this type focused on tropical regions. • A comprehensive review of 60 case studies. • Meta-analysis of the findings of all case studies. • Significant correlations are revealed between LULCC and hydrological processes. Tropical regions have experienced the fastest Land Use Land Cover Change (LULCC) in the last decades, coupled with climate change (CC) this has affected the hydrological and geomorphological processes of river systems. With the increased demand for land, the general trend has been the loss of forest land to agriculture and settlements. These changes have altered the water balance components through enhanced or reduced evaporation, peak flow, flooding, and river morphology. The aim of this review paper is to provide a meta -analysis on the effects of spatiotemporal changes in climate and LULC on river hydro-morphology in the tropics. Following a systematic search, 60 case studies were identified, of which the majority (68%) experienced forest loss due to agricultural and urban expansion, resulting in increased streamflow, surface flow, and total water yield and decreased ET and groundwater recharge. 12% of the case studies showed the impacts of LULCC on channel morphology features through sediment transport and riverbank erosion. Results from this study show limited correlation between LULCC and hydrological variables, indicating that there are likely other factors controlling hydrological processes. Catchment heterogeneity including soil and topography play an important role. Based on studies that project these changes into the future, similar trends are expected over the next decades, with differences based on LU and climate scenarios. There are still limited studies on river hydro-morphology responses to LULCC and CC in the tropics despite the major changes taking place there. In light of future changes, more studies are needed to improve our understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The proposed sediment connectivity framework integrates the rainfall regime. • Event-based sediment connectivity helps identify the sediment source contribution. • The mismatched area exists for erosion and sediment connectivity. • The overlay between erosion and connectivity is key to explaining sediment yield. Sediment connectivity quantifies the intermediate processes between initial erosion and the corresponding sediment yield. However, fully capturing the variations in sediment connectivity at the event scale and revealing their impact on watershed sediment sources remains challenging. Herein, we established an event-based model to assess sediment connectivity by integrating runoff factors. The spatiotemporal variability of sediment connectivity was evaluated for 58 rainfall events in three heterogeneous watersheds. The degree of sediment connectivity served as an indicator to quantify the proportion of potential sediment transport from units to the watershed outlet, with 1 indicating that the eroded sediment can be fully connected and 0 indicating that it cannot be transported. Moreover, the controls of sediment connectivity on watershed sediment sources and yield were determined. Our results indicated that the watersheds with poor vegetation and dense gullies were characterized by high sediment connectivity during all the rainfall events. The connectivity degree was below 0.5 in approximately 80 % of the watershed area, suggesting that most of the eroded sediment was deposited. Rainfall amount and duration dominated the degree of connectivity of the distal hillslopes, while rainfall intensity exerted a primary control on the transport of sediments from riverbanks to the outlet. In addition, the increase of mismatched area between sediment connectivity and erosion resulted in the decrease of sediment yield. The interaction between sediment connectivity and erosion effectively explained the spatial patterns of sediment sources (p < 0.05). Our work confirmed that the coupled erosion model and sediment connectivity predicted the sediment yield accurately. The predictions for different watersheds portrayed that the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency and Willmott's agreement index were greater than 0.70 and 0.89, respectively. These findings revealed the role of sediment connectivity and are the critical basis to identify watershed-specific sediment management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The proposed sediment connectivity framework integrates the rainfall regime. • Event-based sediment connectivity helps identify the sediment source contribution. • The mismatched area exists for erosion and sediment connectivity. • The overlay between erosion and connectivity is key to explaining sediment yield. Sediment connectivity quantifies the intermediate processes between initial erosion and the corresponding sediment yield. However, fully capturing the variations in sediment connectivity at the event scale and revealing their impact on watershed sediment sources remains challenging. Herein, we established an event-based model to assess sediment connectivity by integrating runoff factors. The spatiotemporal variability of sediment connectivity was evaluated for 58 rainfall events in three heterogeneous watersheds. The degree of sediment connectivity served as an indicator to quantify the proportion of potential sediment transport from units to the watershed outlet, with 1 indicating that the eroded sediment can be fully connected and 0 indicating that it cannot be transported. Moreover, the controls of sediment connectivity on watershed sediment sources and yield were determined. Our results indicated that the watersheds with poor vegetation and dense gullies were characterized by high sediment connectivity during all the rainfall events. The connectivity degree was below 0.5 in approximately 80 % of the watershed area, suggesting that most of the eroded sediment was deposited. Rainfall amount and duration dominated the degree of connectivity of the distal hillslopes, while rainfall intensity exerted a primary control on the transport of sediments from riverbanks to the outlet. In addition, the increase of mismatched area between sediment connectivity and erosion resulted in the decrease of sediment yield. The interaction between sediment connectivity and erosion effectively explained the spatial patterns of sediment sources (p < 0.05). Our work confirmed that the coupled erosion model and sediment connectivity predicted the sediment yield accurately. The predictions for different watersheds portrayed that the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency and Willmott's agreement index were greater than 0.70 and 0.89, respectively. These findings revealed the role of sediment connectivity and are the critical basis to identify watershed-specific sediment management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Linkage between soil surface microrelief and overland flow was examined. • Differently oriented wheel tracks served as water flow paths or as sediment sinks. • Increase of surface connectivity after a rain was shown by functional connectivity. • Structural connectivity showed reorganization of the surface runoff pathways. Although wheel tracks cover only a small portion of the surface of agricultural fields, their effect on surface runoff and sediment transport is substantial. Wheel tracks change the microrelief of the soil surface, and influence how the surface is further altered by rainfall and runoff. This study presents a plot-scale microrelief analysis of a tilled surface with wheel tracks under simulated rainfall. Digital elevation models of the microrelief with 1 cm spatial resolution were obtained using the Structure from Motion method. The random roughness, the structural connectivity, and functional connectivity were calculated for before-rainfall and after-rainfall soil surface conditions. The experiments were carried out on inclined, freshly-tilled plots (8 m long, 2 m wide). The wheel tracks were created by four passages of machinery in the slope direction (SWT) and in the contour-line direction (CWT). The experiments were compared to reference plots without wheel tracks (NWT). The wheel tracks increase water and sediment connectivity if they are oriented in slope-wise direction. Microrelief analysis shows that SWT drains water from the surrounding soil. The soil surface adjacent to SWT can also become more connected with the wheel track, due to changes in microrelief introduced by rainfall and runoff. The calculated higher connectivity in the SWT plot corresponded to the measured increased sediment loads. This suggests faster overland flow and therefore shorter flow pathways on the soil surface microrelief. CWT leads to a decrease in the water and sediment connectivity compared to the NWT and SWT plots. Although the surface runoff can overflow the CWT, the network of flow paths results in decreased flow velocity and a slower sediment transport rate. However, the CWT effect is not permanent, and declines as the wheel tracks become silted with the deposited sediment. It is shown that detailed microrelief data provide relevant information for a study of the changes in flow routing in a tilled agricultural field with the presence of a wheel track. SWT accelerates the runoff and especially the sediment transport. During a rainfall event, the hydraulic connection between the wheel track and the surrounding soil increases dramatically. CWT reduces the surface runoff and also the sediment transport. In the long term, rainfall events and surface runoff alter the microrelief connectivity, causing the soil surface to be more hydraulically connected, irrespective of the wheel track orientation. This study demonstrates the effect of wheel tracks on water and sediment transport. The results draw attention to the importance of appropriate soil protection measures, as a bare unprotected surface microrelief exposed to rainfall leads to increased sediment connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• New empirical formulae for estimating erosion-deposition in Luoshan-Hankou reach. • A functional chart differentiating erosion-deposition types of Luoshan-Hankou reach. • Diversion-afflux states for maximum and equilibrium erosion-deposition in the reach. It is not yet fully understood how water-sediment diversion and afflux along a mainstream reach of a river affect erosion-deposition in downstream reaches. This study focuses on the Luoshan-Hankou mainstream reach of the middle Yangtze River, China. The Luoshan-Hankou reach is vitally important for flood control, being located downstream of three diversion mouths and an afflux outlet along the Jingjiang reach. We establish empirical formulae for sediment transport rates at boundary cross-sections, and hence estimate the amount and proportion of erosion-deposition and its relative increase (termed erosion-deposition promotion) in the Luoshan-Hankou reach. We then propose critical net water supplies from Dongting Lake to Luoshan-Hankou reach based on maxima and equilibria of erosion-deposition and its promotion. It is found that net water supply partly drives erosion-deposition in the Luoshan-Hankou reach where maximal proportions of deposition and deposition-promotion may be approximated by 0.01 c -37.67 and 0.01 c -37.67 + c -1, in which c is a dimensionless parameter representing the erosion-deposition condition in Luoshan-Hankou reach for no water-sediment exchange. At Zhicheng hydrological station, the critical ratio of net water supply to overall water discharge is 0.418 c -33.33-1, and critical net water supply ratios for equilibria of erosion-deposition and its promotion are −1 (or c -33.33-1) and 0 (or (0.06 + 3.257 c 54.61)-1-1). A chart based on net water supply and c is devised representing four types of erosion–deposition and its promotion for the Luoshan-Hankou reach. Historical data over the past 65 years demonstrate that erosion-deposition and its promotion in the reach are respectively governed by c and net water supply; there is a remarkable shift from alternate erosion-deposition to monotonic erosion whilst the erosion-deposition effect remains consistent. The foregoing are in agreement with observed data, and comparable with data for the Jingjiang reach (affected by the three water-sediment diversion mouths). Satisfactory flood-control conditions in the convergence zone between the Yangtze mainstream and Dongting Lake accompanied by increasing erosion in the Luoshan-Hankou reach are predicted for the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Both temporal and spatial declines existed in the channel erosion efficiency of the Lower Yellow River. • An excessive decrease in sediment transport capacity and a deficit of riverbed supply led to the temporal decline in channel erosion efficiency. • Cross-sectional geometry and bed material composition were the key factors to cause the differences in channel erosion efficiency of different reaches in the LYR. The operation of the Xiaolangdi Reservoir has exerted prominent effects on the processes of sediment transport and channel evolution in the Lower Yellow River (LYR) since 2000. The investigation into the spatio-temporal adjustment characteristics of channel evolution is of significance to the management of the LYR covering different channel-pattern reaches of braided, transitional and meandering. An indicator of channel erosion efficiency was firstly defined as the ratio of annual channel evolution volume to annual incoming water volume in a specified study reach. Furthermore, the values of channel erosion efficiency in different reaches of the LYR were calculated using the measured hydrological data and cross-sectional profiles during the post-dam stage. Calculated results show that the channel erosion efficiency in the LYR was exhibiting a decline tendency at both temporal and spatial scales, with the mean value of the whole reach decreasing from 6.0 (2000–2007) to 2.7 (2008–2020) and that of the braided reach four times higher than the meandering reach. Main factors influencing the channel erosion efficiency were investigated, covering the incoming flow-sediment regime, riverbed composition and cross-sectional geometry. The temporal decreases in these factors, including incoming sediment coefficient, bed material supply and geomorphic coefficient, resulted in the temporal decline in channel erosion efficiency. The discrepancies in channel erosion efficiency of different reaches were mainly ascribable to the variations in cross-sectional geometry and riverbed composition. The geomorphic coefficient in the braided reach decreased from 19.7 to 9.0 m−1/2, and meanwhile the percentages of fine and medium grain sizes in the riverbed reduced by around 50% from 2000 to 2020, which led to the most dramatic variation in channel erosion efficiency and the different trajectory of channel evolution. In addition, the seldom varied channel slope played a minor role in the temporal variation of channel erosion efficiency, but partly accounted for the spatial reduction along the LYR. This study provides an illustrative example for the response of a large alluvial river with different channel patterns to the varying boundary conditions caused by upstream damming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An efficient 2D shallow water hydro-sediment-morphodynamic model is presented. • Morphodynamic processes under the impact of cascade movable weirs are studied. • Disparate morphological changes may result under different operation schemes. • An alternating operation scheme is proposed to constrain morphological changes. Cascade movable weirs have been increasingly widely used for river landscaping, water storage and ecological wellbeing. The weirs disturb the prior equilibrium in line with fluvial hydrology, sediment transport and geomorphology, and may lead to profound changes in the river, of which, however, the understanding has so far remained poor. Here, the first of its kind, a computational modelling study is presented on the morphodynamic processes under the impact of cascade hydraulic lifting dams, a type of movable weirs, as to the middle Fen River, China. A two-dimensional shallow water hydro-sediment-morphodynamic model is applied to resolve the fluvial processes, which is physically coupled and computationally efficient based on Finite Volume Method, unstructured mesh, local time stepping and parallel computing. Computational results show that the cascade dams alter the flow and sediment transport locally and on the reach scale in a distinct manner under different operation schemes, which in turn incur disparate morphological changes. Collapse of all the dams all year round would lead to net degradation in the study reach, with the floodplains aggrading and the main channel degrading. Operation of all the dams all year round may induce an overall aggradation both on the floodplains and in the main channel. If all the dams collapse in flood seasons and operate in dry seasons (CF), degradation occurs in the main channel whereas the floodplains experience aggradation, with a net degradation. When only the dams in the main channel operate all year round (OM), the floodplains degrade while the main channel aggrades, resulting in a net aggradation in the study reach. Either aggradation or degradation may prevail locally on floodplains, in main channel and individual subreaches. The present findings lead us to propose a complex operation scheme of annually alternating CF and OM to constrain significant morphological changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Erosion by breaking and non-breaking waves was simulated on lateritic soils. • In 80% of the tests; the erosion increase was concordant with wave power increase. • On wave break conditions, the erosion and sendiment generation tends to decrease. • The resulting sediments were deposited in higher concentrations next to sample. • The waves were incapable of separating the grains sizes of the soil. Many countries use hydropower as their main source of power generation. One of the factors responsible for erosion in hydroelectric reservoir margins is the action of wind-induced waves, which increases sedimentation and reduces their storage capacity. Despite potential economic and environmental damages, research into wave erosion processes on reservoir margins are found mainly in cohesive soils from cold regions. Research on erosion by waves of cohesive soils from savannah regions, which are commonly found in tropical reservoirs, is incipient; studies evaluating breaking and non-breaking wave conditions on this type of erosion are especially important. This work presents the results from 18 water wave channel experiments which were conducted to investigate the erosional processes by waves on lateritic soils, under breaking wave and non-breaking wave conditions, as well as determining the spatial distribution of the resulting sediments. Lateritic soil samples were placed on the wave channel and different conditions were tested. Wave frequencies varied from 0.272 to 0.999 Hz on four different beach slope angles of 22.50, 30.00, 45.00, and 60.00 degrees. In 80% of the tests, the erosion rate varied positively in a nonlinear form with the increase of the accumulated wave power. However, when the waves broke, erosion rate sometimes varied negatively and the sediment production tended to be reduced. High precision 3D surveys showed a good agreement between the maximum depth of the eroded surfaces and the power increase of the waves. The average roughness of the samples increased in 90% of the tests. The spatial distribution of sediments and their grain size distributions were also investigated. The waves' driving forces were incapable of transporting the sediments away from their source of origin and, therefore, were not able to change the natural distributions of the grains with the simulated conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fine sediment is a key driver of water quality degradation in rivers globally and improved knowledge of its source and transport is required to assess the efficacy of sediment control options and pollution abatement strategies. Here the transport characteristics (deposition, erosion and flocculation) of fine sediment were studied experimentally in an annular flume to provide parameters necessary to model fine sediment transport in the upper River Taw in southwest England. Deposition experiments were carried out using a sediment–water mixture in the flume and in-situ size distributions of sediment flocs were measured to assess flocculation and settling behavior of sediment. The influence of bed shear stress and bed consolidation were investigated in a series of erosion experiments. These data were used to calibrate and test a mathematical model of fine sediment transport in annular flumes (FLUME model) and the measured and modelled data were in good agreement. Transport parameters for cohesive sediments, such as the critical shear stresses for deposition and erosion as well as the particle density, porosity and settling velocity as a function of floc size were established. The density and settling velocity of the cohesive sediments were sensitive to the biological activity within the floc structure. Data from the flume experiments are necessary as input parameters to models such as RIVFLOC or SHETRAN that simulate fine sediment transport in the River Taw at the catchment scale and assess the efficacy of sediment control options and catchment management scenarios [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]