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The purpose of this study was to assess the health risk of the heavy metals (HMs) (arsenic [As], cadmium [Cd], chromium [Cr], copper [Cu], iron [Fe], lead [Pb], Manganese [Mn], and zinc [Zn]) in rice produced in Mazandaran province (Amol and Mahmoudabad), Iran. A number of 60 rice samples were randomly collected and analyzed for the HMs by ICP-MS. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks of the HMs were probabilistically assessed based on Monte Carlo simulation in terms of hazard quotient/index (HQ/HI) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (LTCR), respectively. The average concentration of HMs in rice grains in the studied areas was ranked as follows: Fe > Zn > Mn > Pb > Cu > Cr > As > Cd. THQΣmi showed that non-carcinogenic risk for area residents was largely related to Pb (1.77), As (0.59), Fe (0.57) and Cr (0.41). The average HI values of the HMs in rice produced in Amol and Mahmoudabad were assessed to be 2.42 (1.10–4.14) and 1.91 (0.43–3.9), respectively. The average LTCR values of the HMs in rice were in the following order: Cd (3.46 × 10−4 [1.34 × 10−4 to 6.96 × 10−4] for Amol and 3.97 × 10−4 [1.35 × 10−4 to 9.57 × 10−4] for Mahmoudabad) > As (8.60 × 10−5 [1.47 × 10−5 to 2.42 × 10−4] for Amol and 1.04 × 10−4 [6.17 × 10−6 to 2.83 × 10−4] for Mahmoudabad) > Cr (5.71 × 10−5 [2.88 × 10−5 to 9.61 × 10−5] for Amol and 4.75 × 10−5 [1.59 × 10−5 to 8.69 × 10−5] for Mahmoudabad). The average total LTCR value of the HMs in rice was within the acceptable range (10−6 to 10−4). The findings showed that exposure to the HMs via rice consumption could threaten human health, and an appropriate strategy to reduce concentrations of the HMs in rice is needed. • ICP-MS was utilized to analyze the concentration of HMs in rice produced in Iran. • The calculated THQ for Pb was found to be higher compared to other HMs. • The LTCR associated with rice and exposure to HMs was within an acceptable range. • Regular monitoring of HMs levels in rice prior to market entry is essential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, the majority of studies have assessed the health risks of toxic metals (TMs) in raw rice and/or in rice that is cooked in the laboratory under controlled conditions. However, people usually consume rice that is cooked in metallic cookware using ordinary cooking water and various additives. Therefore, this study focused on the contamination levels of TMs in raw rice and rice cooked under real conditions by the rural households of northern Iran. The levels of As and Cd in the cooking water used in rural households were negligible. The As levels in raw and cooked rice were 257 ± 134 and 243 ± 28 μg/kg, respectively, and the corresponding values for Cd were 8.54 ± 6.94 and 8.64 ± 3.18 μg/kg, respectively. Probabilistic health risk assessment showed unacceptable health risks for the As contamination of both raw and home-cooked rice but with different probability distributions. Overall, this study showed that the cooking water with low TMs levels was not sufficient for the significant reduction of these contaminants in rice during home cooking. Therefore, it is essential to monitor the TMs levels in home-cooked rice, instead of raw and/or artificially cooked rice, for a more realistic assessment of attributed health risks to the general public. • Toxic metals (TMs) levels of home-cooked rice evaluated. • TMs levels were not reduced during home-cooking. • TMs levels in cooking water were negligible. • Arsenic in home-cooked rice may pose unacceptable health risks for rural residents. • Health risk assessment based on the TMs levels of home-cooked rice is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]