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Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Pain and inflammation are the most frequent reasons for which people seek medical care. Currently available analgesics against these conditions produce fatal adverse effects. NPK 500 capsules is an alternative herbal analgesic employed to treat dysmenorrhea, peptic ulcer and pain. NPK 500 is produced from Cassia sieberiana. A plant used in traditional medicine to treat pain and inflammation., Aim of the Study: This study reports the analysis, phytochemical characterization and mechanism of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of two NPK 500 capsules, called old and new NPK500 capsules (ONPK500 and NNPK500) respectively., Materials and Methods: Physicochemical, organoleptic, GC-MS and LC-MS methods were employed to analyze the NPK 500 capsules. Analgesic activity was evaluated using tail immersion, Randall-Selitto and acetic acid induced writing tests. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using carrageenan-induced rat paw inflammation. Additionally, pro-inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-2 and COX-1) were quantified in the sera of the rats using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kits., Results: Thirteen major compounds were characterized in the NNPK 500 capsules via the GC-MS and LC-MS spectroscopies. Kaempferol was the major compound characterized in addition to physcion, β-sitosterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, betulinic acid and nine others. Physicochemical and organoleptic indices of the capsules were also derived for its authentication and quality control. Furthermore, NNPK 500 0.5-1.5 mg/kg p.o. produce significant (P < 0.5) analgesic activity (160-197%) higher than that of ONPK500 (109.8%) and Morphine (101%) in the tail immersion test. The analgesic activity of NNPK 500 0.5-1.5 mg/kg p.o. (171.0-258.3%) and ONPK 500 (179.5%) were also significant (P < 0.01) and higher than that of Aspirin (103.00%) in the Randall-Selitto test. Both capsules also demonstrated significant (P < 0.5) analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities in the acetic acid-induced writhing and carrageenan-indued paw edema tests respectively. The two NPK500 capsules also, significantly (P < 0.5) inhibited PGE2 and iNOS but not COX-2 and COX-1 in the carrageenan-indued paw edema test., Conclusion: These results show that NNPK 500 and ONPK 500 capsules possessed potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities via inhibition of PGE2 and iNOS as a result of their chemical constituents. NPK500 capsules thus, relief acute pain and inflammation without causing gastrointestinal, renal or hepatic injuries, since they did not inhibit COX-1., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Curcuma longa L., Azadirachta indica A Juss. Cassia tora L. has been used in Unani medicine for various skin ailments. Several researches have been conducted on these plants which have shown anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-oxidant, wound healing, anti-inflammatory, and immune modulation activities. Skin diseases and the use of these drugs are mentioned in classical Unani literature like The Canon of medicine, Continens Liber, Hippocratic treatments, The Complete Book of the Medical Art etc. AIM: The aim of the study was to formulate anti-microbial soap and to evaluate its clinical efficacy of in the management of Tinea corporis., Materials and Methods: The anti-microbial soap was prepared by hydroalcholic extracts of Curcuma longa L., Azadirachta indica A Juss. and Cassia tora L. The prepared soap was evaluated for various physicochemical parameters, microbiological evaluation, stability study, skin irritation, In-vitro anti-microbial activity, GCMS analysis, and a clinical trial was carried out to evaluate its efficacy. A Single Blind Randomized Placebo Controlled trail on 30 patients aged between 18 and 60 years of either gender was carried out. The participants were randomly allocated to receive either anti-microbial soap or Placebo soap for 4 weeks. Subjective parameters including erythema, pruritis and desquamation were assessed weekly while as objective parameter including Photograph of lesion, Total Symptom Score (TSS) and KOH mount was assessed at baseline and at the end of the trial., Results: The improvement in subjective parameters was found significant in test group. Erythema, scaling, and desquamation was completely relieved by 70%, 80% and 25% patients respectively in test group while as none of the patients got complete relief in control group. There was statistically significant reduction in average TSS 8.65 ± 0.6708 to 3.05 ± 1.35 p < 0.001. KOH mount turned negative in 80% patients in test group while as only 20% turned negative in control group., Conclusion: It is concluded that Unani drugs can be utilized in better way by modifying into a convenient dosage form. Anti-microbial soap was formulated by adding minimal additives to achieve effectiveness, with cost effective benefits and less or no side effects. Anti-microbial soap was effective in management of management of Tinea corporis. Moreover further studies on large sample size are required to fine-tune these observations., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Cassia mimosoides Linn (CMD) is a traditional Chinese herb that clears liver heat and dampness. It has been widely administered in clinical practice to treat jaundice associated with damp-heat pathogen and obesity. Emodin (EMO) is a major bioactive constituent of CMD that has apparent therapeutic efficacy against obesity and fatty liver. Here, we investigated the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of EMO against high-fat diet (HFD)-induced nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)., Objective: We aimed to investigate whether EMO activates farnesoid X receptor (FXR) signaling to alleviate HFD-induced NAFLD., Materials and Methods: In vivo assays included serum biochemical indices tests, histopathology, western blotting, and qRT-PCR to evaluate the effects of EMO on glucose and lipid metabolism disorders in wild type (WT) and FXR knockout mice maintained on an HFD. In vitro experiments included intracellular triglyceride (TG) level measurement and Oil Red O staining to assess the capacity of EMO to remove lipids induced by oleic acid and palmitic acid in WT and FXR knockout mouse primary hepatocytes (MPHs). We also detected mRNA expression of FXR signaling genes in MPHs., Results: After HFD administration, body weight and serum lipid and inflammation levels were dramatically increased in the WT mice. The animals also presented with impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and antioxidant capacity, liver tissue attenuation, and pathological injury. EMO remarkably reversed the foregoing changes in HFD-induced mice. EMO improved HFD-induced lipid accumulation, insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner in WT mice by inhibiting FXR expression. EMO also significantly repressed TG hyperaccumulation by upregulating FXR expression in MPHs. However, it did not improve lipid accumulation, insulin sensitivity, or glucose tolerance in HFD-fed FXR knockout mice., Conclusions: The present study demonstrated that EMO alleviates HFD-induced NAFLD by activating FXR signaling which improves lipid accumulation, insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidative stress., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: According to ethnobotanical surveys, Cassia sieberiana DC. (1825) is a particularly reputed species in African folk Medicine, namely due to the application of its leaves and roots for the treatment of diseases and symptomatology that appear to be related with an inflammatory background. In contrast with the roots of the plant, the leaves remain to be investigated, which prompted us to further detail mechanisms underlying their anti-inflammatory properties, by using in vitro models of disease., Aim of the Study: Considering its use in the amelioration and treatment of conditions that frequently underlie an inflammatory response, C. sieberiana leaves extract was prioritized amongst a collection of extracts obtained from plants collected in Guinea-Bissau. As such, this work aims to deliver experimental data on the anti-inflammatory properties of C. sieberiana leaf and to establish possible associations with its chemical composition, thus providing a rationale on its use in folk Medicine., Materials and Methods: The chemical profile of an hydroethanol extract obtained from the leaves of the plant was established by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS n in order to identify bioactives. The extract and its main compound were tested towards a series of inflammatory mediators, both in enzymatic and cell-based models. The capacity to interfere with the eicosanoid-metabolizing enzymes 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and -2 (COX-2) was evaluated in cell-free systems, while the effects in interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels produced by THP-1 derived macrophages were assessed through ELISA., Results: HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS n analysis of the extract elucidated a chemical profile qualitatively characterized by a series of anthraquinones, particularly rhein derivatives, and nine flavonols, most of which 3-O-glycosylated. Considering the concentrations of the identified compounds, quercetin was detached as the main component. Effects of the hydroethanol extract obtained from C. sieberiana leaves against key enzymes of the arachidonic acid cascade were recorded, namely a concentration-dependent inhibition against 5-LOX, at concentrations ranging from 16 to 250 μg mL -1 and a selective inhibitory action upon COX-2 (IC 50  = 3.58 μg mL -1 ) in comparison with the isoform COX-1 (IC 50  = 9.10 μg mL -1 ). Impact on inflammatory cytokines was also noted, C. sieberiana leaf extract significantly decreasing IL-6 levels in THP-1 derived macrophages at 250 and 500 μg mL -1 . In contrast, TNF-α levels were found to be increased in the same model. Quercetin appears to partially account for the observed effects, namely due to the significant inhibitory effects on the activity of the arachidonic acid metabolizing enzymes COX-2 and 5-LOX., Conclusions: The anti-inflammatory effects herein reported provide a rationale for the use of C. sieberiana leaves in African folk practices, such as in the treatment of arthritis, rheumatism and body aches. Considering the occurrence of flavonoidic and anthraquinonic constituents, as well as the observed anti-inflammatory properties of quercetin, recorded effects must be related with the presence of several bioactives., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Cassia abbreviata is a small to medium sized branched umbrella-shaped deciduous tree. It is widely spread in the tropics, especially in Africa, having a long history in traditional medicine for the treatment of numerous conditions such as headaches, diarrhea, constipation, some skin diseases, malaria, syphilis, pneumonia, stomach troubles, uterine pains, and against gonorrhea., Aim of the Study: We investigated the phytochemical constituents of a root extract from Cassia abbreviata using HPLC-PDA-ESI-MS/MS. We also determined the antioxidant activities in vitro and in vivo using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism. The hepatoprotective activities in case of D-galactosamine (D-GaIN)-induced hepatotoxicity were studied in a rat model., Materials and Methods: HPLC-PDA-ESI-MS/MS analysis allowed the identification of the secondary metabolites of the methanol extract. DPPH and FRAP assays were used to determine the antioxidant activities in vitro. Using the C. elegans model, survival rates under juglone induced oxidative stress, intracellular ROS content, quantification of Phsp-16.2: GFP expression and subcellular DAF-16: GFP localization were investigated to determine the antioxidant activities in vivo. The in vivo hepatoprotective potential of the root extract was evaluated for D-galactosamine (D-GaIN)-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. The activity of the liver enzymes alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), in addition to liver peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione content (GSH), as well as albumin and total bilirubin concentration, were determined. A histopathological study was also performed., Results and Conclusions: C. abbreviata root extract is rich in polyphenolics, particularly proanthocyanidins. HPLC-PDA-ESI-MS/MS analysis resulted in the identification of 57 compounds on the bases of their mass spectra. (epi)-Catechin, (epi)-afzelechin, (epi)-guibourtinidol, and (ent)-cassiaflavan monomers as well as their dimers, trimers, and their diastereomers are the main components of the extract. The total phenolic content amounted for 474mg/g root extract expressed as gallic acid equivalent using the Folin-Ciocalteu method. The extract exhibited powerful antioxidant activity with EC 50 of 6.3μg/mL in DPPH and 19.15mM FeSO 4 equivalent/mg sample in FRAP assay. In C. elegans model, the extract (200μg/mL) was able to increase the survival rate by 44.56% and reduced the ROS level to 61.73%, compared to control group. Pretreatment of rats with 100mg extract/kg (b. wt.) reduced MDA by 47.36% and elevated GSH by 59.1%. The extract caused a significant reduction of ALT, AST and GGT activities by 11%, 35.7% and 65%, respectively. The findings of this study suggest that the proanthocyanidin-rich extract from C. abbreviata may be an interesting candidate for hepatoprotective activity in case of hepatocellular injury., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Traditionally Cassia glauca (CG) has been used to treat diabetes., Aim of the Study: The study was undertaken to evaluate anti-diabetic and antioxidant activity of polyphenolic enriched extract of CG in standardized streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats., Materials and Methods: The effect of ethanol (CGE) and water (CGW) extracts of CG (200 and 400mg/kg) treatment were evaluated in STZ (50mg/kg, iv) induced diabetic rats. On 10 th day, oral glucose tolerance test and degree of insulin resistance was calculated. On 13 th day, insulin tolerance test was performed to know the peripheral utilization of glucose. On 15 th day, blood glucose, lipid profiles and endogenous antioxidant levels were estimated. In addition, the effects on oral glucose/sucrose tolerance test in normal rats. Further, HPLC fingerprinting profile of CGE and simultaneous quantification of biomarkers were carried out., Results: Supplementation with CGE and CGW significantly reduced STZ-induced deleterious effects and improved glucose tolerance, and insulin tolerance. In addition, supplementation also decreased oxidative stress by improving endogenous antioxidant levels. Furthermore, administration significantly improves sucrose tolerance suggesting that extract possess inhibition of α-glucosidase enzyme. Further, HPLC studies revealed that CGE contains three bioactive polyphenolic compounds viz., rutin (0.10±0.01mg/g), luteolin-7-glucoside (0.06±0.01mg/g) and isorhoifolin (0.7±0.05mg/g)., Conclusion: Observed beneficial outcome of CG might be attributed to the presence of polyphenolic compounds and mediated by interacting with multiple targets of diabetes and oxidative stress. Taken together, this study provided the scientific evidence for the traditional use of CG., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Cassia auriculata (CA) is used as an antidiabetic therapy in Ayurvedic and Siddha practice. This study aimed to understand the mode-of-action of CA via combined cheminformatics and in vivo biological analysis. In particular, the effect of 10 polyphenolic constituents of CA in modulating insulin and immunoprotective pathways were studied., Materials and Methods: In silico target prediction was first employed to predict the probability of the polyphenols interacting with key protein targets related to insulin signalling, based on a model trained on known bioactivity data and chemical similarity considerations. Next, CA was investigated in in vivo studies where induced type 2 diabetic rats were treated with CA for 28 days and the expression levels of genes regulating insulin signalling pathway, glucose transporters of hepatic (GLUT2) and muscular (GLUT4) tissue, insulin receptor substrate (IRS), phosphorylated insulin receptor (AKT), gluconeogenesis (G6PC and PCK-1), along with inflammatory mediators genes (NF-κB, IL-6, IFN-γ and TNF-α) and peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) were determined by qPCR., Results: In silico analysis shows that several of the top 20 enriched targets predicted for the constituents of CA are involved in insulin signalling pathways e.g. PTPN1, PCK-α, AKT2, PI3K-γ. Some of the predictions were supported by scientific literature such as the prediction of PI3K for epigallocatechin gallate. Based on the in silico and in vivo findings, we hypothesized that CA may enhance glucose uptake and glucose transporter expressions via the IRS signalling pathway. This is based on AKT2 and PI3K-γ being listed in the top 20 enriched targets. In vivo analysis shows significant increase in the expression of IRS, AKT, GLUT2 and GLUT4. CA may also affect the PPAR-γ signalling pathway. This is based on the CA-treated groups showing significant activation of PPAR-γ in the liver compared to control. PPAR-γ was predicted by the in silico target prediction with high normalisation rate although it was not in the top 20 most enriched targets. CA may also be involved in the gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis in the liver based on the downregulation of G6PC and PCK-1 genes seen in CA-treated groups. In addition, CA-treated groups also showed decreased cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose, CRP and Hb1Ac levels, and increased insulin and C-peptide levels. These findings demonstrate the insulin secretagogue and sensitizer effect of CA., Conclusion: Based on both an in silico and in vivo analysis, we propose here that CA mediates glucose/lipid metabolism via the PI3K signalling pathway, and influence AKT thereby causing insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues. CA enhances glucose uptake and expression of glucose transporters in particular via the upregulation of GLUT2 and GLUT4. Thus, based on its ability to modulate immunometabolic pathways, CA appears as an attractive long term therapy for T2DM even at relatively low doses., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Semen Cassiae has been traditionally used as an herbal remedy for liver, eye, and acute inflammatory diseases. Recent pharmacological reports have indicated that Cassiae semen has neuroprotective effects, attributable to its anti-inflammatory actions, in ischemic stroke and Alzheimer's disease (AD) models., Aim of the Study: The basic goal of this study was to evaluate the anti-AD activities of C. obtusifolia and its major constituents. Previously, the extract of C. obtusifolia seeds, was reported to have memory enhancing properties and anti-AD activity to ameliorate amyloid β-induced synaptic dysfunction. However, the responsible components of C. obtusifolia seeds in an AD are currently still unknown. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of C. obtusifolia and its constituents against acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and β-site amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) enzyme activity., Materials and Methods: In vitro cholinesterase enzyme assays by using AChE, BChE, and BACE1 were performed. We also scrutinized the potentials of Cassiae semen active component as BACE1 inhibitors via enzyme kinetics and molecular docking simulation., Results: In vitro enzyme assays demonstrated that C. obtusifolia and its major constituents have promising inhibitory potential against AChE, BChE, and BACE1. All Cassiae semen constituents exhibited potent inhibitory activities against AChE and BACE1 with IC50 values of 6.29-109µg/mL and 0.94-190µg/mL, whereas alaternin, questin, and toralactone gentiobioside exhibited significant inhibitory activities against BChE with IC50 values of 113.10-137.74µg/mL. Kinetic study revealed that alaternin noncompetitively inhibited, whereas cassiaside and emodin showed mixed-type inhibition against BACE1. Furthermore, molecular docking simulation results demonstrated that hydroxyl group of alaternin and emodin tightly interacted with the active site residues of BACE1 and their relevant binding energies (-6.62 and -6.89kcal/mol), indicating a higher affinity and tighter binding capacity of these compounds for the active site of BACE1., Conclusion: The findings of the present study suggest the potential of C. obtusifolia and its major constituents for use in the development of therapeutic or preventive agents for AD, especially through inhibition of AChE, BChE and BACE1 activities., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) strains resistant to licensed anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) continue to emerge. On the African continent, uneven access to ARVs combined with occurrence of side-effects after prolonged ARV therapy have led to searches for traditional medicines as alternative or complementary remedies to conventional HIV/AIDS management., Aim of the Study: Here we characterize a specific three-step traditional HIV/AIDS treatment regimen consisting of Cassia sieberiana root, Vitex doniana root, and Croton megalobotrys bark by combining qualitative interviews of traditional medical knowledge users in Botswana with in vitro HIV replication studies., Materials and Methods: Crude extracts from a total of seven medicinal plants were tested for in vitro cytotoxicity and inhibition of wild-type (NL4.3) and ARV-resistant HIV-1 replication in an immortalized GFP-reporter CD4+ T-cell line., Results: C. sieberiana root, V. doniana root, and C. megalobotrys bark extracts inhibited HIV-1NL4.3 replication with dose-dependence and without concomitant cytotoxicity. C. sieberiana and V. doniana extracts inhibited HIV-1 replication by 50% at 84.8µg/mL and at 25µg/mL, respectively, while C. megalobotrys extracts inhibited HIV-1 replication by a maximum of 45% at concentrations as low as 0.05µg/mL. Extracts did not interfere with antiviral activities of licensed ARVs when applied in combination and exhibited comparable efficacies against viruses harboring major resistance mutations to licensed protease, reverse-transcriptase, or integrase inhibitors., Conclusions: We report for the first time a three-step traditional HIV/AIDS regimen, used alone or in combination with standard ARV regimens, where each step exhibited more potent ability to inhibit HIV replication in vitro. Our observations support the "reverse pharmacology" model where documented clinical experiences are used to identify natural products of therapeutic value., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Tea infused with the seed of Cassia obtusifolia has been traditionally used as an herbal remedy for liver, eye, and acute inflammatory diseases. Recent pharmacological reports have indicated that Cassiae semen has neuroprotective effects, attributable to its anti-inflammatory actions, in ischemic stroke and Parkinson's disease models., Aim of the Study: Previously, the ethanol extract of C. obtusifolia seeds (COE) was reported to have memory enhancing properties. However, the effects of COE in an Alzheimer's disease (AD) model are currently unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect(s) of COE on aberrant synaptic plasticity and memory impairment induced by amyloid β (Aβ), a key toxic component found in the AD brain., Materials and Methods: To determine the effect of COE on Aβ-induced aberrant synaptic plasticity, we used acute mouse hippocampal slices and delivered theta burst stimulation to induce long-term potentiation (LTP). Western blots were used to detect Aβ- and/or COE-induced changes in signaling proteins. The novel object location recognition test was conducted to determine the effect of COE on Aβ-induced recognition memory impairment., Results: COE was found to ameliorate Aβ-induced LTP impairment in the acute hippocampal slices. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), a key molecule in LTP impairment, was activated by Aβ. However, this process was inhibited by COE via Akt signaling. Moreover, COE was found to attenuate Aβ-induced microglia, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase (COX) activation. In the in vivo studies performed, COE ameliorated the Aβ-induced object recognition memory impairment., Conclusion: These results suggest that COE exhibits neuroprotective activities against Aβ-induced brain disorders., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Cataract is the clouding or opacity that develops in the eye's lens and is considered to be an unavoidable consequence of aging due to irreversible lens damage. Free radicals and oxidant species are reported to be the major factor responsible for the onset and pathology of cataract. No pharmacological measures are formulated to treat cataract blindness and surgical removal of the opaque lens is the only remedy till date. Boosting of antioxidant potential of the lens is proved to prevent cataract and many indigenous plants have been screened for anticataractogenic potential in the last decades. The objective of the present study was to determine whether Cassia tora leaves; the plant employed in traditional medicine for eye rejuvenation and ailments, can prevent cataract in neonatal rats., Materials and Methods: Cataract was induced by a single subcutaneous injection of sodium selenite at a dose of 4 μg/g body weight on the 10th day and Cassia tora leaves was administered orally from 8th day upto 12th day at a concentration of 5 μg/g body weight. After 30 days; lens morphology, oxidant-antioxidant equilibrium, glutathione metabolism, cytoskeletal protein/gene expressions were monitored., Results: Lens morphology, biochemical analysis and expression studies supported the anticataractogenic effect of Cassia tora leaves., Conclusion: In summary, it can be suggested that the consumption of these leaves afford protection to the lens with its antioxidant action and seems to be a new therapeutic approach against cataract by preventive protection., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Semen Cassiae, called Juemingzi in China, is the seed of the annual Cassia obtusifolia L., of the leguminosae family. It has been used as healthy drinks to alleviate constipation and improve eyesight for many years in China., Aim of the Study: A simple sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method has been developed and validated for the simultaneous determination and pharmacokinetic study of chrysophanol, emodin, aloe-emodin, rhein, physcion, obtusifolin and aurantio-obtusin in rat plasma., Materials and Methods: Chromatographic separation was accomplished on a C18 column with a 5min gradient elution. A tandem mass spectrometric detection was conducted using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) via an electrospray ionization (ESI) source and operating in the negative ionization mode. The samples were prepared by LLE with ethyl acetate after being spiked with an internal standard (butylparaben)., Results: The current UHPLC-MS/MS assay was validated for linearity, intra-day and inter-day precisions, accuracy, extraction recovery and stability. The method was linear for all analytes over investigated range with all correlation coefficients greater than 0.9900. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of each analyte was lower than 5ng/mL. Intra-day and inter-day precisions were less than 14.99%. The relative errors of accuracies were in the range of -14.60% to 5.11%. The mean recoveries and matrix effects of anthraquinones were higher than 65.54% and 93.26%, respectively. After oral administration 1.25g/kg of Semen Cassiae extract, the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) was 1189.25±333.40ng/mL for chrysophanol, 38.48±3.15ng/mL for emodin, 79.20±34.76ng/mL for aloe-emodin, 152.70±23.91ng/mL for rhein, 461.85±266.77ng/mL for physcion, 243.59±22.71ng/mL for obtusifolin and 1950.44±638.86ng/mL for aurantio-obtusin, respectively. The time to reach the maximum plasma concentration (Tmax) was 0.333±0.071h for chrysophanol, 0.333±0.059h for emodin, 0.333±0.009h for aloe-emodin, 0.333±0.09h for rhein, 0.167±0.002h for physcion, 0.5±0.074h for obtusifolin and 0.333±0.06h for aurantio-obtusin, respectively., Conclusion: The proposed method was further applied to investigate the pharmacokinetics of seven anthraquinones after oral administration of Semen Cassia extract to rats., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Despite advances in anti-retroviral therapy which has transformed HIV/AIDS from a fatal to a manageable chronic disease, increasing viral drug resistance, side effects and uneven access to anti-retroviral drugs remain considerable therapeutic challenges. Partly as a consequence of these shortcomings and partly based on the fact that HIV/AIDS gives rise to opportunistic infections whose symptoms have been managed in Africa in an HIV/AIDS-independent context by traditional healers for centuries, many HIV/AIDS patients use herbal medicines. The aim of this study was to screen selected medicinal plants from Botswana, used by traditional healers to treat/manage HIV/AIDS, for inhibitory activities on HIV replication., Materials and Methods: Based on an ethnomedical survey, ethanolic tannin-containing and tannin-free extracts from 10 medicinal plants were tested for inhibitory properties against a clone of HIV-1c (MJ(4)) measuring cytopathic effect protection and levels of viral p24 antigen in infected PBMCs., Results: Cassia sieberiana D.C., Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Oliv. and Plumbago zeylanica L. extracts showed significant inhibition of HIV-1c (MJ(4)) replication. The inhibitory activity of the Plumbago zeylanica extract could be attributed to its tannin content. Anti-HIV activity of Cassia sieberiana root and bark extracts, and Cassia abbreviata root extracts occurred in a concentration-dependent manner with an effective concentration (EC(50)) of 65.1μg/ml, 85.3μg/ml and 102.8μg/ml, respectively. Experiments to elucidate possible mechanism(s) of action revealed that Cassia sieberiana root and bark extracts blocked HIV replication at its binding- (EC(50)=70.2μg/ml and 90.8μg/ml, respectively) and entry stage (EC(50)=88.9μg/ml and 100.5μg/ml, respectively) while Cassia abbreviata extracts did not., Conclusions: We report here for the first time a direct inhibitory effect on HIV-1c replication of extracts from two extremely popular medicinal plants, Cassia sieberiana and Cassia abbreviata. Considering the traditional uses of both Cassia species, our findings strongly suggest pilot clinical observational studies involving traditional healers to further evaluate the therapeutic potential of the Cassia extracts., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Leaves of Cassia alata (family: Caesalpiniaceae) are ethnomedically claimed as anti-asthmatic. In the current study we aimed to investigate the anti-allergic activities of hydro-methanolic extract of Cassia alata (Linn.) and its constituents rhein and kaempferol on triple antigen/sheep serum-induced mast-cell degranulation in rats., Materials and Methods: Antiallergic activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Cassia alata along with its two components rhein and kaempferol was evaluated using in vivo mast cell stabilization assay. Inhibitory effect on lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme was also evaluated in vitro. Further chemical standardization of Cassia alata extract was done using rhein and kaempferol by HPTLC-densitometric method., Results: The hydroalcoholic extract of Cassia alata significantly inhibited mast cell degranulation at 200mg/kg dose. Both chemical constituents rhein and kaempferol also showed potent (>76%) inhibition of mast-cell degranulation at 5mg/kg. Extract and rhein inhibited LOX enzyme with IC(50) values of 90.2 and 3.9μg/mL, respectively, whereas kaempferol was inactive., Conclusion: Our results suggest that Cassia alata exhibit anti-allergic activity through mast cell stabilization and LOX inhibition. Thus, Cassia alata or its active constituents could be potential alternative treatment for allergic diseases., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol and water extracts from the flower of Cassia fistula (an ethnomedicinal plant) were tested against bacteria and fungi. All the extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram-positive organisms with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) between 0.078 and 2.5 mg/ml. Among the Gram-negative bacteria, only Pseudomonas aeruginosa was susceptible to the extracts. Ethyl acetate crude extract was fractionated using chromatographic techniques. A crystal was isolated, which was confirmed as 4-hydroxy benzoic acid hydrate using X-ray crystallography. It exhibited antifungal activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes (MIC 0.5 mg/ml) and Epidermophyton floccosum (MIC 0.5 mg/ml).

The study was aimed at evaluating the antioxidant activity of alcoholic extract of Cassia siamea Lam. (Fabaceae) flowers. The extract was found to contain a large amount of polyphenols and also exhibited an immense reducing ability. At a concentration of 250 microg/ml, 96% of DPPH radicals and at 500 microg/ml, 42.7, 32.7 and 64.5% of O2-, H2O2 and NO respectively could be scavenged by C. siamea flower extract. The extract also inhibited OH radical induced oxidation of protein (BSA) and LPO in murine hepatic microsomes. The determination of metal chelating capacity of the extract indicated chelating of metal ions (Fe2+) to be a putative mechanism implicated in the inhibition of OH radical-induced BSA oxidation and LPO. C. siamea flower extract also exhibited a significant antioxidant activity in acute oxidative tissue injury animal model constituted by CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity. Oral administration of the extract at a dose of 50-150 mg/kg of body weight significantly protected from CCl4 induced elevation in AST and ALT in the serum, elevation in hepatic LPO, depletion of hepatic GSH and decrease in the activities of hepatic antioxidant enzymes: SOD, CAT and GPX. The extract also protected against histopathological changes produced by CCl4 such as necrosis, fatty changes, ballooning degeneration, etc. The data obtained in the present study suggests that the alcoholic extract of C. siamea flowers have potent antioxidant activity against free radicals, prevent oxidative damage to major biomolecules and afford significant protection against oxidative damage in the liver.

Ethanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora L. and its fractions were investigated for hypolipidemic activity on triton induced hyperlipidemic profile. Ethanolic extract and its ether soluble and water soluble fraction decreased serum level of total cholesterol by 42.07, 40.77 and 71.25%, respectively. On the other hand ethanolic extract, ether soluble fraction and water soluble fraction increased the serum HDL-cholesterol level by 6.72, 17.20 and 19.18%, respectively. Ethanolic extract, ether fraction and water fraction decreased triglyceride level by 26.84, 35.74 and 38.46%, respectively. The reduction in LDL-cholesterol level by ethanolic extract, ether soluble fraction and water soluble fraction were 69.25, 72.06 and 76.12%, respectively.

Cassia singueana (Family: Fabaceae) is used in northern Nigeria for the treatment of acute malaria attack. We investigated the activities of the methanol extract of the root bark of this plant against rodent plasmodia infection, nociception, pyrexia and inflammation in mice and rats. The studies were carried out using acetic acid-induced writhing, hot plate algesia, rodent plasmodia (Plasmodium berghei) in mice; formalin test, yeast-induced pyrexia and egg-albumin-induced inflammation in rats. The results showed that the extract exhibited significant antinociceptive, antipyretic and antiplasmodial activity in all the models used. Phytochemical screening of the extract revealed the presence of phenols, saponins, tannins and some traces of anthraquinones. The LD50 of the extract was established to be 847+/-30 mg/kg, i.p. in mice. The observed pharmacological activities might be the scientific basis for the folkloric use of the plant in treating acute malaria attack. The study also paves way for the possible development of it, as a phytodrug against malaria.

Crude ethanol and water extract of leaves and barks from Cassia alata were tested in vitro against fungi, (Aspergillus fumigatus and Microsporum canis), yeast (Candida albicans) and bacteria (Staphylococcus aereus and Escherichia coli). C. albicans showed concentration-dependent susceptibility towards both the ethanol and water extracts from the barks, but resistant towards the extracts of leaves. The degree of susceptibility varied, the water extract from barks showed bigger inhibition zone than the ethanol extracts (12-16 and 10-14 mm, diameter respectively). The growth of Aspergillus fumigatus and Microsporum canis were not affected by all types of the plant extracts. Results were comparable to standard antifungal drug Tioconazole (18 mm diameter) at equivalent concentration. The anti-bacterial activity of C. alata extracts on S. aureus was detected with only the leaves extracts using water and ethanol. The water extract exhibited higher antibacterial activity than the ethanol extract from leaves (inhibition zones of 11-14 and 9-11 mm, respectively). E. coli showed resistance to all types of extracts. Based on the current findings, it can be concluded that this plant has antimicrobial activity, which is as potent as standard antimicrobial drugs against certain microorganisms., (Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.)

Traditional physicians in and around Kotagiri village near Ootacamund, use a mixture of powdered roots of Cassia occidentalis, Derris brevipes variety coriacea and Justicia simplex to control female fertility. A mixture of powdered roots of these three plants, powdered root of Derris brevipes variety coriacea and its ethanolic extract were screened for antifertility activity in proven fertile female rats at 200 and 600 mg/kg body weight, respectively and given orally on D(1-7) of pregnancy. Both doses of the root powder of Derris brevipes variety coriacea showed 50% anti-implantation activity and also a significant reduction in the number of litters born. The ethanolic extract exhibited 40% anti-implantation activity when given orally at 600 mg/kg body weight. The rats, which continued their pregnancy, did not deliver any litters after their full term. Hence, the combined antifertility (anti-implantation and abortifacient) activity of the ethanolic extract was 100%. The results suggest that the ethanolic extract possesses more abortifacient type effect than the anti-implantation activity. The ethanolic extract also exhibited weak estrogenic activity when given alone and tested in immature ovariectomised female albino rats. But, when given along with ethinyl estradiol, it exhibited slight antiestrogenic activity. Histological and biochemical estimations were carried out to confirm this., (Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.)

Effects of methanolic extract (ME) of Cassia fistula seed on the growth of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) and on the life span of tumor bearing mice were studied. ME treatment showed an increase of life span, and a decrease in the tumor volume and viable tumor cell count in the EAC tumor hosts. Cytological studies have revealed a reduction in the mitotic activity, and the appearance of membrane blebbing and intracytoplasmic vacuoles in the treated tumor cells. Improvement in the hematological parameters following ME treatment, like hemoglobin content, red blood cell count and bone marrow cell count of the tumor bearing mice have also been observed. The results of the present study suggest that ME of C. fistula seed has an antitumor activity.

Hepatoprotective activity of the n-heptane extract of Cassia fistula leaves was investigated in rats by inducing hepatotoxicity with carbon tetrachloride:liquid paraffin (1:1). The extract has been shown to possess significant protective effect by lowering the serum levels of transminases (SGOT and SGPT), bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The extract of C. fistula at a dose of 400 mg/kg showed significant hepatoprotective activity which was comparable to that of a standard hepatoprotective agent.

Cassia occidentalis L. (Caesalpiniaceae), commonly known as 'Kasondi', is used in Unani medicine for liver ailments and is an important ingredient of several polyherbal formulations marketed for liver diseases. The hepatoprotective effect of aqueous-ethanolic extract (50%, v/v) of leaves of kasondi was studied on rat liver damage induced by paracetamol and ethyl alcohol by monitoring serum transaminase (aspartate amino transferase and serum alanine amino transferase), alkaline posphatase, serum cholesterol, serum total lipids and histopathological alterations. The extract of leaves of the plant produced significant hepatoprotection.

The therapeutic efficacy of Cassia alata leaf extract against Pityriasis versicolor has been reported for the first time involving humans. For the collection of clinically effective antifungal compounds from the leaves of Cassia alata, a simple procedure has been devised. A 10-year human study indicates that the leaf extract can be reliably used as a herbal medicine to treat Pityriasis versicolor. The leaf extract has no side-effects.