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The present research conducted two experiments with an intelligent tutoring system to investigate the overall and dynamic impact of emotional support from a pedagogical agent (PA). In Experiment 1, a single factor intergroup design was used to explore the impact of PA's emotional support (supportive vs. non-supportive) on learners' emotions, intrinsic motivation, and learning gain. Sixty participants were recruited and randomly assigned to one of the two conditions. Experiment 2 also conducted a single factor between-subjects design to investigated the dynamic patterns between emotions and learning strategies among 30 participants using lag sequential analysis. Results showed that: Compared with the non-supportive pedagogical agent, the supportive pedagogical agent reduced frustration and improved learning gain, but did not increase intrinsic motivation. In addition, learners with the supportive pedagogical agent used more appropriate strategies after frustration and surprise, and use less ineffective strategies after confusion and enjoyment to avoid reaching a wrong answer. If learners did not receive emotional support in such cases, learning strategies following these emotions were more likely lead to negative cognitive results, or negative emotions tended to appear repeatedly. Instructors or PAs should identify learners' emotions in time and provide the appropriate emotional support according to learners' emotions.

In multimedia learning, there is a lot of new information that learners are exposed to, making it a cognitively intensive process. Poorly-designed multimedia lessons can introduce distractions that must be dealt with by the learner. However, learners do not all share the same skill at managing incoming information or holding capacity, which could create individual differences in the impact of multimedia lessons on learning and lead to inequity in learning. In three experiments, learners saw a multimedia lesson varying in the amount of distracting material included: high (Experiment 1), moderate (Experiment 2), or low (Experiment 3). Learners took a posttest and completed tasks to assess individual differences in managing incoming information (executive function) and holding capacity (working memory capacity). When distractions were present (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), executive function was related to posttest performance such that as executive functioning increased, performance on the posttest increased. However, when distractions were not present (Experiment 3), executive function was not related to posttest performance. Individual differences in working memory capacity were not related to posttest performance at any level of distraction. This indicates the importance of considering individual differences in learners' executive functioning in the design of multimedia lessons.

Although prior research has highlighted the significance of representations for mathematical learning, there is still a lack of research on how students use multimodal external representations (MERs) to solve mathematical tasks in digital game-based learning (DGBL) environments. This exploratory study was to examine the salient patterns problem solvers demonstrated using MERs when they engaged in a single-player, three-dimensional architecture game that requires the acquisition and application of math knowledge and thinking in game-based context problem solving. We recorded and systematically coded the behaviors of using MERs demonstrated by 20 university students during 1.5 hours of gameplay. We conducted both cluster and sequential analyses with a total of 2654 encoded behaviors. The study indicated that the maneuverable visual-spatial representation was most frequently used in the selected architecture game. All of the participants performed a high level of representational transformations, including both treatment and conversion transformations. However, compared to the students in the second cluster who were mostly non-game players, students in the first cluster (composed of mainly experienced video game players) displayed a higher frequency of interacting with various MERs and a more cautious and optimized reflective problem-solving process.

This study examined the impacts of adding emotional design features to a multimedia lesson (color alone, anthropomorphism alone, or color & anthropomorphism together) on college students' affective processes (measured by ratings of experienced emotion during learning), cognitive processes (measured by eye-tracking metrics), and learning outcomes (measured by retention and transfer test scores). One-hundred students were randomly assigned to watch a short multimedia lesson in one of four conditions: no emotional design, colorful emotional design, anthropomorphism emotional design, and colorful and anthropomorphism emotional design. The study results showed that compared to the no emotional design group, the colorful and anthropomorphism emotional design group showed the higher positive emotion rating (d = 0.726), the shortest time to first fixation on an emotional design area (d = -0.877), the longest fixation duration on emotional design areas (d = 0.640), and the best transfer test score (d = 0.679). In contrast, the anthropomorphism emotional design group outperformed the no emotional design group only on rating of positive emotion, and the colorful emotional design group outperformed the no emotional design group only on transfer test score. The results show that two emotional design features are more effective than one in multimedia lessons. A structural equation model indicated that positive emotion (tapping affective processing) and fixation duration (tapping cognitive processing) mediated the pathway from emotional design to learning performance. These results partially support the Cognitive-Affective Model of E-Learning.

With the explosion of multimedia learning environments and the use of digital time-compression algorithms in common software and hardware, we need guidance on how to use this technology without sacrificing quality and learning outcomes. The purpose of the meta-analysis is to examine the existing empirical research literature to derive an overall integrated model for the use of digital time-compression algorithms in multimedia learning environments. We frame this research by coining the accelerated playback hypothesis, which posits that learning outcomes will not diminish with accelerated playback of multimedia learning materials until a threshold is reached. Systematically searching twelve academic databases and filtering the literature, we identified seven qualified manuscripts with k = 18 independent effect size comparisons using time-compression in the context of multimedia learning. The overall effect size for playback speed 1.4-1.5x is small and significant at g = -0.212 [95% CI = -0.378, -0.045]. The overall effect size for playback speed 1.8-2.0x is small and non-significant at g = -0.362 [95% CI = -0.743 to 0.019]. Discussion and implications for practice and research are provided.

Teaching English in a classroom setting where EFL learners were usually sitting at desks and doing English learning tasks using paper and pencil is inefficient. It has considerable potential problems that could lead to students learning in a passive state. More specifically, the teaching materials are inconsistent with students' authentic experiences, which decreases the learning efficiency, learning motivation, and levels of interactivity. An annotatable multimedia E-reader (AME) was developed to address these problems. The provided various annotation tools to help students create dramas with authentic contexts. The study participants were 48 junior high school students and divided into the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG). Results revealed that learning English through drama with AME assistance in authentic contexts significantly improved the participants' learning achievements. In other words, the learning achievements of the EG were superior to those of the CG. Moreover, the results indicated that different learning behaviors were significantly related to different learning achievements. Thus, the greater the diversity of learning behaviors practiced by the students in the drama activity in authentic contexts, the higher the students' learning scores on different dimensions. Finally, the results indicated that using the AME in authentic contexts was beneficial for English learning through drama.

Despite the continuous emphasis on emotion in multimedia learning, it was still unclear how pedagogical agent emotional cues might affect learning. In the present study, a between-subjects experiment was performed to examine the effects of a pedagogical agent with dual-channel emotional cues on learners' emotions, cognitive load, and knowledge transfer performance. Participants from a central Chinese university (age mean = 21.26, N = 66) were randomly divided into three groups. These groups received instructions from an affective pedagogical agent, a neutral pedagogical agent, or a neutral voice narration without pedagogical agent embodiment. Results showed that learners assigned the affective pedagogical agent reported a significantly higher emotional level than learners assigned the neutral pedagogical agent. Learners' perceived task difficulty was not significantly different among groups while instructional efficiency was significantly higher for learners with the affective pedagogical agent. Moreover, learners assigned to the affective pedagogical agent performed significantly better on the knowledge transfer test than those assigned the neutral pedagogical agent or the neutral voice.

In this article, we present a systematic review of literature on augmented reality (AR) supported for early language learning. We analyzed a total of 53 papers from 2010 to 2019 using qualitative analysis with complementary descriptive quantitative analysis. Our findings revealed three main AR learning activities: word spelling games, word knowledge activities, and location-based word activities. Our findings also uncovered five main design strategies: three-dimensional multimedia content, hands-on interaction with physical learning materials, gamification, spatial mappings, and location-based features. Several combinations of design and instructional strategies tended to be effective: Learning gains were enhanced by using three-dimensional multimedia with advanced organizers (presentation strategy) and/or using location-based content with learners' self-exploration (discovery strategy); and motivation was enhanced by using game mechanisms with discovery strategy. We suggest that future designers of AR early language applications should move beyond these basic approaches and consider how unique benefits of AR may be applied to support key activities in early language learning while also considering how to support sociotechnical factors such as collaboration between teachers and learners and different learning contexts. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for research in this emerging space.

The aim of this study is to present three contributing factors to kinesthetic learning. This study employed advanced recognition technologies, pedagogical mechanisms, and interesting activity design. First, kinesthetic learning with a speaking accuracy measuring function to facilitate English as foreign language (EFL) learning is proposed. Namely, this function is about measuring the learners' speaking accuracy and recognizing whether their body movements and facial expressions match their English speaking content via recognition technology. This function is expected to improve the learners' pronunciation and motivation during the experiment. Second, we propose Collaborative Kinesthetic English Learning System based on the second-language acquisition method Total Physical Response. By integrating our system with Total Physical Response, it helps the learners improve EFL learning with physical movements and stimulates their memorization and motivation from collaborative perspectives. Finally, the last significant contribution of this study is to design and implement interesting interactive activities: Experience-based Sentence-Making and Interactive Dialogue. These two activities are to help learners produce their English output. In this study, our experimental results show Experience-based Sentence-Making and Interactive Dialogue can significantly improve EFL learning.

Technology advances quickly in today's society. This is particularly true in regard to instructional multimedia. One increasingly important aspect of instructional multimedia design is determining the type of voice that will provide the narration; however, research in the area is dated and limited in scope. Using a randomized pretest-posttest design, we examined the efficacy of learning from an instructional animation where narration was provided by an older text-to-speech engine, a modern text-to-speech engine, or a recorded human voice. In most respects, those who learned from the modern text-to-speech engine were not statistically different in regard to their perceptions, learning outcomes, or cognitive efficiency measures compared with those who learned from the recorded human voice. Our results imply that software technologies may have reached a point where they can credibly and effectively deliver the narration for multimedia learning environments.

The contemporary era brings technology into every part of our lives. As a result of technological improvements, education process has been affected and the use of technological devices is inevitable. Teaching language has also been affected by this movement. Thus, Mobile-Assisted Language Learning has gained importance through the recent years. Within light of these, the aim of this study is to understand the effect of annotation use on vocabulary recall and retention levels of English as a foreign language students. A software called Vocastyle was developed for this study. It included annotations that helped students to learn and remember new vocabulary items. The participants of the study were 122 students of a state elementary school in which multimedia learning is benefited at a major city of Turkey. In order to understand whether the use of annotations caused any difference between students' level of vocabulary recall and retention, the pre-, post-, and delayed posttests were applied. Quantitative data analyses were done via descriptive statistics, chi-square, multivariate analysis of variance, and Kruskal--Wallis and Mann--Whitney U tests. The results implied that learners who used multimedia annotations recalled and retained better than the learners who used paper-based annotations and who received no treatment at all.

This study describes the development of an innovative multimedia application and examines teacher perceptions of its usefulness in assisting students with imagery deficit to visualize the reading comprehension. Students with good reading skills can easily create mental representations from oral or written language, and their sensory system quickly brings parts to whole through imagery. Students with deficiency may have trouble creating images due to their sensory information from imagery is slow and dull, and they often get stuck on parts and pieces. Those unable to image what they read usually cannot understand and remember what they read, which is consistent with the referential connection between the verbal and visual symbolic systems according to the Dual-Coding Theory. This application helps students to develop the capacity to build mental images sentence by sentence. The students engage a touch screen to draw a picture associated with the meaning of each sentence. With the sentences hidden or pictures shuffled, they select and describe each picture in sequence to retell the story. Pictures can be saved to analyze students' learning outcomes and needs. Teacher perceptions indicate their willingness to integrate this application into reading instruction to help improve reading comprehension of students with imagery deficit.

Based on the sharable content object concept of advanced distributed learning, an ontology-based intelligent content object (ICO) that can automatically reason and be reused is proposed. Then, by extending the advanced distributed learning or sharable content object reference model (SCORM) specification, an interoperable model for the ICO is developed; it involves (a) adding an ontological model of general domain knowledge for intelligent tutoring systems to the SCORM specification and encapsulating the design details of the heterogeneous knowledge ontologies, (b) adding a hierarchical data structure for the current ontology element to the communication data model in the run-time environment of the SCORM specification, (c) extending the application program interface in the run-time environment of the SCORM specification to enable the ICO to query various knowledge ontologies in a consistent way, and (d) adding an Ontology section to the content aggregation model in the SCORM specification to ensure that the same ICO can be associated with different knowledge ontologies. The proposed model extends the SCORM-based courseware model from a multimedia-based structured courseware to the intelligent courseware based on a knowledge ontology and can significantly improve the overall intelligence of the learning system along the lines of the specification, thereby providing a reference for the future development of the SCORM specification.

Multimedia students' dependence on information from the outside world can have an impact on their ability to identify and locate information from multiple resources in learning environments and thereby affect the construction of mental models. Field dependence-independence has been used to assess the ability to extract essential information from the environment. This study utilized eye-tracking technology to explore whether field-dependent and field-independent (FI) learners differed in their visual searching efficiency and multimedia learning performance. The FI learners outperformed field-dependent learners in posttest indices. In addition, FI learners were better able to identify visual cues and demonstrated efficient visual search patterns when learning using different information formats. The research findings echoed previous findings: The dependence on information in the context of learning can affect learners' visual search efficiency and learning performance. The findings of this study suggest that adaptable learning environments that provide a rich variety of media may benefit learners with different levels of information-dependence. Applying eye-tracking technology enabled blueprints to be created pertaining to the learners' information processing. However, additional research techniques, such as think-aloud exercises, would enable deeper understanding of how learners construct mental models of a knowledge base in a multimedia learning environment.

This study examined the influence of three levels of learner control on learners' perceptions when learning with a pedagogical agent. Pedagogical agents have shown promise for improving learning and connections with learning materials within video-based instruction, and research has shown that agent design choices can influence how agents are perceived by learners. However, it is unclear the effect that the pacing of the video could have on the way the agent is perceived by the learner. The pacing of the learning environment refers to the amount of control a learner has over their learning experience. The question of how much control to provide the learner, in what situations, and for whom, is a persisting question in the literature. Using a three-group randomized experimental procedure, our analyses revealed that providing the learners with increased control of their learning experience was not associated with more positive perceptions of the agent. These results, although preliminary due to the dearth of literature in the area, suggest that learner control may not be an important factor in how pedagogical agents are perceived.

Observational tutoring has been found to be an effective method for teaching a variety of subjects by reusing dialogue from previous successful tutoring sessions. While it has been shown content can be learned through observational tutoring, it has yet to been examined if a secondary behavior such as goal setting can be influenced. The present study investigated whether observing virtual humans engaging in a tutoring session on a difficult learning topic, rotational kinematics, with embedded positive goal-oriented dialogue would increase knowledge of the material and perpetuate a shift in an observer's goal orientation from performance avoidance goal orientation (PAVGO) to learning goal orientation (LGO). Learning gains were observed in pretest to posttest knowledge retention tests. Significant negative changes from pretest to posttest occurred across conditions for LGO. Additionally, significant increases from PAVGO pretest to posttest were observed in the control condition; however, PAVGO did not significantly change in the experimental condition.

In this study, we enhanced a problem-based learning (PBL) environment with affordable, everyday technologies that can be found in most university classrooms (e.g., projectors, tablets, students' own smartphones, traditional paper-pencil, and Facebook). The study was conducted over a 3-year period, with 60 postgraduate learners in a human-computer interaction course, following a PBL approach to teaching and learning. First, this article contributes a detailed description of how PBL can be enacted in a multimodal, technology-rich classroom. Second, the study presents evaluation data on learners' technology adoption experience while engaging in PBL. Overall, the participants positively endorsed the learning environment, rating their experience highly on scales of communication and interaction, reflection, perceived learning, and satisfaction. In addition, quantitative content analysis of Facebook use documented how the physical and digital tools in the environment, coupled with the capability of Facebook as a recordkeeping and communication tool, were integral part of the PBL process.

The pedagogical and design considerations for the use of a virtual reality (VR) learning environment are important for prospective and current teachers. However, empirical research investigating how preservice teachers interact with transformative content representation, facilitation, and learning activities in a VR educational simulation is still limited. The purpose of this study is to examine prospective teachers' user experiences in a VR-based learning environment, thus exploring VR-based instructional strategies and providing potential heuristics that assist teachers to integrate VR learning environments into their future teaching practices. Five preservice teachers participated in the study. An OpenSim-supported virtual simulation of a sushi restaurant was designed to enable preservice math teachers to experience 3D simulation-based math teaching and learning. All of the data in this study were collected via video archives, interview, and infield observation. The study results indicated the importance of transformative content representation in a VR educational simulation. The results also informed on the salient heuristics of VR-based learning facilitation and learning activity design.

The learner-centered paradigm of instruction differs in such fundamental ways from the teacher-centered paradigm that it requires technology to serve very different functions. In 2006, a research team at Indiana University began to work on identifying those functions and published their results in 2008. Subsequently, the team elaborated and refined those functional specifications, which are described herein as the Personalized Integrated Educational System (PIES), a technology system that has not yet been developed to support learner-centered education. The four major functions are recordkeeping for student learning, planning for student learning, instruction for student learning, and assessment for and of student learning. Secondary functions include communication and collaboration, PIES administration, and improvement of PIES. Each of these functions is described in detail, followed by specifications for the system architecture, including interoperability, modularity, and customizability.

Virtual humans are becoming an easily available and popular component of multimedia learning that are often used in online learning environments. There is still a need for systematic research into their effectiveness. The current study investigates the positioning of a virtual human's gestures when guiding the learner through a multimedia presentation. Using predictions based on the spatial contiguity principle of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, learners were presented with a multimedia environment presented by a virtual human that did not gesture to guide the learning, gestured with item-specific gestures, or made general gestures close to the item area. The study randomly assigned 77 participants to one of the three conditions. The results indicated that having an agent perform gestures that are specifically targeting the elements discussed or in close vicinity can improve retention. These findings are taken as partial support for of the application of the spatial contiguity principle to virtual humans within multimedia environments.

Interactive multimedia learning environments incorporate interactive features, such as questioning, through which questions are posed to students and feedback is delivered on their answers. An experiment was conducted comparing two forms of questioning. The participants learned about geology with a multimedia environment that included questioning episodes. In the interactive questioning condition, the participants were presented with the question, chose an answer from a set of three options, and got the corresponding feedback. In the noninteractive questioning condition, the participants were presented with the same question and options, but they were not required to make a choice; instead, they were exposed to the feedback for each option. In a control condition, the participants received statements equivalent to those in the question and feedback. After learning with the environment, the participants took retention and transfer tests. The results in retention and transfer showed that the participants in the interactive condition outperformed those in the control and the noninteractive conditions, who did not differ from each other. This finding means that participation is critical for questioning to work effectively. This has implications for the design of learning environments.

This article presents a research study addressing the development, implementation, evaluation, and use of Interactive Modules for Online Training (MITO) of mathematics in higher education. This work was carried out in the context of the MITO project, which combined several features of the learning and management system Moodle, the computer-aided assessment for mathematics STACK, the mathematical software GeoGebra, several packages from the type-setting program LaTeX, and tutorial videos. A total of 1,962 students participated in this study. Two groups of students taking a calculus course were selected for a deeper analysis. With regard to usability and functionality, the results indicate that MITO scored well in almost all aspects, which is fundamental for their introduction into formal university courses. The analysis of the data reveals that the use of MITO educational contents by students mainly occurs about 1 week and a half prior to the evaluations. Moreover, there is a strong correlation between the results of online assessments on MITO in a continuous assessment model and the final grade on the course.

The study examined how student control over metacognitive prompts in a multimedia environment affects students' ability to solve mathematical problems in immediate comprehension tasks using a multimedia program and a delayed-transfer test. It also examined the effect on metacognitive discourse, mental effort, and engagement with multimedia-based tasks. Participants were 90 8th-grade students, randomly assigned to three groups working in pairs: (a) "solicited prompts" group, with free access to multimedia-based metacognitive prompts; (b) "unsolicited prompts" group, consistently and regularly exposed to on-screen metacognitive prompts; and (c) a control group with no multimedia metacognitive prompts. Mixed method analysis showed that of the three groups the unsolicited prompts group had the highest effects in the immediate comprehension tasks (d = 1.23; 1.92 respectively for the solicited prompts group and the control group) and the delayed-transfer problem solving test (d = 0.55; 0.93, respectively). The level of this group's metacognitive discourse was higher, particularly in the planning phase. Group members displayed less cognitive load on the complex tasks and were more engaged in the multimedia activities. In contrast, the solicited prompts group felt they were under a heavier cognitive load than the other two groups. Finding implications and future directions for study are discussed.

Teachers experience difficulty demonstrating prediction strategies and leading discussions in traditional classrooms. It is also unclear whether online discussion can contribute to reading comprehension. The purpose of this study is to create an online reading system to investigate whether learners can acquire reading strategies and enhance their reading comprehension through online discussion. Because students who are simultaneously immersed in two learning practices may experience cognitive overload, this combined strategy instruction system was compared to single strategy instruction systems that allow only one learning practice at a time, either prediction or discussion. A total of 110 5th-grade students participated in this study. The results revealed that single strategy instruction was more beneficial to students' reading comprehension, and the reasons combined strategy instruction was less efficient are discussed. Students' prediction types and the quality of discussion between the two instructions were also reported.

In one experiment 97 undergraduate students learned about plate tectonics from a multimedia presentation involving narrated animations and support in one of four forms. Support in the prompting condition included hints inducing participants to self-explain critical information. The signaling condition included overviews recapping critical information. The questioning condition included questions about critical information and feedback on participants' answers. The control condition included no support. Participants in the questioning condition outperformed those in the rest of conditions in retention and transfer. This means that questioning is a very powerful technique for promoting multimedia learning.

The purpose of the two experiments was to investigate the potential effects of different types of visualizations and self-explanation prompts on learning human cardiovascular system in a multimedia environment. In Experiments 1 and 2, 70 and 44 college students were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions in a 2 × 2 factorial design with visualization type (animated vs. static) and prompting self-explanations (prompts vs. none) as the between subjects factors. The results of Experiment 1 revealed a positive effect of prompts on learning outcomes. Experiment 2, in which the no-prompts conditions were re-designed, partially replicated the results of Experiment 1. In addition, it revealed a significant interaction between the two factors on learning time, learning outcomes, and goal-driven self-explanations. The results of both experiments suggest that instructional designers should pay attention to learners' cognitive aspects, and utilize the combination of animated visualizations and self-explanation prompts when designing multimedia environments.

Research on the use of software programs and tools such as pedagogical agents has peaked over the last decade. Pedagogical agents are on-screen characters that facilitate instruction. This meta-analysis examined the effect of using pedagogical agents on learning by reviewing 43 studies involving 3,088 participants. Analysis of the results indicated that pedagogical agents produced a small but significant effect on learning. The overall mean effect size was moderated by the contextual and methodological features of the studies. The findings revealed that the use of pedagogical agents were more beneficial for K-12 students than post-secondary students. Pedagogical agents that communicated with students using on-screen text facilitated learning more effectively than agents that communicated using narration. The findings of this study have implications for advancing theory and practice, as well as highlighting productive future directions for research.

Up to now, only a few studies in multimedia learning have focused on gender effects. While research has mostly focused on learning success, the effect of gender on instructional efficiency (IE) has not yet been considered. Consequently, we used a quasi-experimental design to examine possible gender differences in the learning success, mental effort, and IE of college preparatory school students (N = 218, German 9th graders; 93 young men, 125 young women). We established three groups: a treatment group (computer-based learning unit, CBLU); a control group (textbook-based version, TBLU); and an external control group (no instruction). The subject taught was genetically produced insulin. We applied a pretest-posttest-retention test design. We used the long-term cognitive achievement and the mental effort invested during the retention test phase to examine the IE. Young women and young men differed in IE with a small effect size, with the young women achieving significantly higher long-term learning success. Our results indicate that the applied instructional design of the CBLU seems particularly beneficial for young women's cognitive achievement. (Contains 7 tables, 2 figures, and 1 footnote.)

Online instruction has been demonstrated to increase the academic achievement for post-secondary students; however, little empirical investigation has been conducted on high school students learning from online multimedia instruction in the traditional classroom. This study investigated the knowledge acquisition, transfer, and favorability of secondary students using a teacher's screen-capture instructional technology. A two-group experimental pretest-posttest study was conducted on secondary students enrolled in two computer aided design (CAD) classes. Total scores on the posttests were significantly higher for students in the screen-capture group (M = 9.71) than those in the textbook group (M = 7.83), F(1, 48) = 4.79, p less than 0.05, partial eta[squared] = 0.09. Additionally, 88.2% of the students surveyed preferred learning from the multimedia instruction over written text. This study implies that a teacher's screen-capture multimedia instruction can be used toward establishing a blended learning environment. (Contains 4 tables and 6 figures.)

We examine the effect of direct and indirect teaching of vocabulary and word reading on pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children following use of an electronic storybook (e-book). The children in each age group were randomly assigned to an intervention group which read the e-book or to a control group which was afforded the regular school program. The e-book included words with meaning support and words with no support. Children who read the e-book exhibited progress in the meaning and reading of the words supported directly by the computer compared to the control group. No such progress was observed for words without direct support. No differences appeared in the progress between the two age groups and no interaction was found between age and type of word support. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Achievement in mathematics is an issue of great concern not only to students and parents but also to employers and researchers in Kenya. This is because the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) has continuously reported dismal results in this area, and especially in geometry. Also, KNEC indicates that it presents difficulties to both the teachers and learners during instructional sessions. In an extension of research demonstrating causal effects of electronic learning environments on special education learners' achievement and perceptions of mathematics instruction, the present study experimentally examined the effectiveness of a special electronic learning program (SELP) to improve hearing-impaired learners' achievement of basic geometry and their perception of the Geometry learning environment. Sixty-six hearing-impaired learners from four special education schools situated in Rift Valley province were sampled purposively on the basis of the school's accessibility to participate in the study. The study employed the Solomon-Four Group Design research method. The specific dependent measures were the learners' achievement in geometry and their perception of the classroom learning environment. Measurement of achievement and perception were conducted using two instruments: (i) the Geometry Achievement Test (GAT), and (ii) the Special Learners Classroom Environment Questionnaire (SLCEQ). GAT's reliability was computed using K-R20 formula yielding a reliability of 0.78. On the other hand, SLCEQ reliability was determined using Cronbach alpha yielding a reliability coefficient of 0.82. The study established that SELP was modestly effective in improving the achievement of hearing-impaired learners on geometry and their perception of the classroom environment. The study concludes that teachers can arrest the special learners' problem of poor performance in geometry through the use of electronic learning programs. (Contains 7 tables and 11 figures.)

Although previous research shows verbal recall of time-compressed narration is significantly enhanced when it is accompanied by a representational adjunct picture (Ritzhaupt & Barron, 2008), the reason for this increased performance remains unclear. One explanation, explored in the current study, is based on the Conjoint Retention Hypothesis (CRH), which posits that mentally stored visual information can serve as a secondary retrieval cue that boosts recall of related verbal material. Four groups of participants (N = 153) listened to a compressed audio narration at different rates of speed. The narration was accompanied by visuals, 50% of which were pictorially-related and 50% of which were pictorially-unrelated. Results show the type of information significantly influenced the recall, but not the recognition performance. While CRH provides the most feasible explanation for the increased recall, the generative-recognize view best explains the differences between recognition and recall performance. (Contains 4 figures and 2 tables.)

While multimedia-based training is prevalent in education, previous studies do not reach consensus on its application. This discrepancy might be due to the fact that multimedia programs implemented in various training programs are very diverse. A multimedia program might include graphics, animation, video, audio, and interactive exercises. This exploratory study is not a bold attempt to answer the question regarding all features of multimedia; rather, the focus has been narrowed down to the audio component of multimedia. It was found that even if audio neither hinders nor helps multimedia learning, a tutorial with audio can hold users' interest and help develop positive perceptions of the presented material, but it is suggested that instructional designers should consider placing rich media content in the later section of the learning sequence, especially when audio can only be used sporadically. (Contains 5 figures and 7 tables.)

A Multi-Scaffolding Environment (MSE) is a multimedia environment reliant on authentic scaffolding. We examine the impact of the availability of multiple scaffolds on learning and cognitive load within an MSE where learners are assigned a real-world task and given access to four support tools to help them complete the task. By examining an MSE in the area of geographic literacy, we explore the effectiveness of problem-based learning and whether multiple scaffolding is applicable to any content area. Quantitative and qualitative data indicate that a learner-controlled multi-scaffolding approach may be a valuable approach in problem-based learning contexts. (Contains 5 figures and 3 tables.)

This study compared the use of an animated pedagogical agent (agent) with an electronic arrow and voice narration (arrow and voice) in a multimedia learning environment where 74 college level English as a Second Language (ESL) students learned English relative clauses. No significant differences in learning or performance were found between the group receiving the agent and the arrow and voice group. This result provides evidence for Clark's (2001) claim that learning is supported by appropriate instructional methods (in this study directing attention to and voicing key concepts), not a delivery medium (in this study an animated agent or the drawing of an arrow with voice). Clark has also argued against using expensive instructional media when lower cost alternatives achieve the same or similar learning and motivation goals. It was also found that the agent's visual appearances and social behaviors did not motivate, interest, or tutor learners better than the simple arrow with voice. Thus, this result does not support the Persona Effect (Lester, Converse, Kahler, Barlow, Stone, & Bhogal, 1997) which is derived from the hypothesis that an animated agent motivates human-computer interaction because it is perceived as more socially engaging and interesting than other attention directing and information dispensing devices, and thus leads learners to work harder and learn more. The study also did not support the cognitive efficiency hypothesis (Cobb, 1997) which refers to one medium requiring less effort from learners in achieving a specific learning criterion or leading to faster learning than another. No significant difference was found between the agent and arrow with voice groups in the measured levels of cognitive efficiency. Yet, as in past studies, the data suggested a significant learning benefit of animated pedagogical agents for learners with the lowest levels of prior knowledge but no differences at the intermediate or advanced prior knowledge levels. (Contains 5 figures and 4 tables.)

Users of educational hypertext are faced with the challenge of creating meaning both within and between texts. Cohesion is an important factor contributing to whether a reader is able to capture meaning and comprehend text. When readers are required to fill in conceptual gaps in text, comprehension can fail if they do not have sufficient knowledge. Cohesion helps low-knowledge readers to create a more coherent mental representation of the text. However, text that is too cohesive can inhibit active processing, and thus reduce coherence for more knowledgeable readers. Similar patterns have been found for hypertext, which requires readers to create coherence between multiple electronic texts. Domain novices are in greater need of explicit pointers to important links between documents and gain from having less control over system navigation. Domain experts are in less need of scaffolding within the system. We discuss the use of a multimedia reading strategy training program to help low-knowledge readers better understand less cohesive text. Finally, we discuss four principles to guide hypertext development geared toward improving coherence and metacognitive engagement.

Research on animated pedagogical agents (agents) is viewed as a very positive attempt to introduce more pedagogical support and motivational elements into multi-media instruction. Yet, existing empirical studies that examine the learning benefits of agents have had very mixed results, largely due to the way that they are designed. This article will suggest five design principles for future research on the impact of agents on learning and motivation including: 1) The Balanced Separation Principle describes need for adequate controls that tease out the specific type of learning and/or motivational support the agent is providing; 2) The Variety of Outcomes Principle suggests different measures to test a variety of learning and motivation outcomes that may be influenced by agents; 3) The Robust Measurement Principle advises researchers to pay special attention to the reliability and construct validity of experimenter designed measures; 4) The Cost-Effectiveness Principle recommends the collection of data on the relative cost of producing agent and non-agent treatments; and 5) The Cognitive Load Principle alerts those who plan treatments for experiments to exercise caution when developing and testing agents that are visually and aurally "noisy" or complex.

This article discusses the effectiveness of a theoretical-based integrated learning environment (ILE) for training non-traditional learners to perform the skills required to be successful in entry-level jobs. The ILE places instruction in a real-world, workplace context with realistic settings, characters, and storylines. The multimedia interface actively engages learners. Instructional techniques include project-based and problem-based learning, "just-in-time" remediation, scaffolding, mentoring, and individualized instruction. The assessment is transparent in that it is embedded in computer-assisted tasks. This ensures consistent monitoring of learner progress and skill mastery without interrupting the learner. This study evaluates the training performance of 206 learners (86% completion rate), and tracks learners' employment or continuing education rate during a 90-day follow-up period. Results indicate that 67% of learners gained employment or continued their education, and 15% received raises or changed jobs for higher salaries. The average wage increase was $1.06 per hour. The success of the ILE validates the application of multimedia-based simulation to education.

This article describes the implementation and evaluation of a learning objects based computer aided system for an advanced engineering course at Ghent University, Belgium. A new syllabus concept was introduced: students had access to a Web-delivered component and received an identical printed component as two sources of information additional to the altered lectures. The latter were redesigned as interactive, application-oriented sessions, centered around two case studies which actively engaged students in the learning process. Both pre-test and post-test surveys were conducted to investigate the impact and the effects of the new teaching approach. The following issues were addressed: changes in students' attitudes toward the use of ICT; the impact of the new approach on students' ways of learning; and their appreciation for the entire course concept. The issue whether multimedia and lectures are complementary or alternative in nature as well as some gender related issues are also discussed. (Contains 1 table and 2 figures.)

Describes the design of an intelligent Web-based interactive language learning system to support learning English as a second language on the Internet. Highlights include an interactive English writing environment; an authentic conversation learning environment; authoring tools to facilitate teachers' content preparation; system architecture; and multimedia learning environments. (Author/LRW)

Reports results from a study of the effects of multimedia learning environments in geography in a Dutch secondary school. Discusses information and communication technology and learning behavior, and examines the impact of multimedia environments on students' time on task, on student-student and student-teacher interaction, and on students' information handling skills. (Author/LRW)

Describes a study that investigated preservice elementary teachers' decisions about teaching strategies and their attitudes toward mathematics and computer-related technologies in a constructivist-centered methods course which included the use of problem-solving multimedia. The effectiveness of these strategies in developing more positive attitudes toward computer-related technologies and constructivism is discussed. (Author/LRW)

Describes a multimedia-based Russian language course developed at Colgate University (NY) and a multimedia authoring system that makes the creation of such courses technically feasible for language instructors. The use of movies, foreign language instruction, principles of design, development frameworks, and future plans are discussed. (Author/LRW)

Examines the learning benefits of a learner-as-designer environment simulating a real-world multimedia production house and its impact on at-risk high school students. Students showed a significant growth in their value of intrinsic goals and achieved several critical design skills. The experience provided many students, who could not otherwise succeed in schools, a way to pursue their goals. (Author/AEF)

Discusses multimedia products for literature in elementary and secondary school response-based classrooms and describes results of a study that developed criteria with which to examine these products. Findings indicate that their pedagogical approach is not necessarily aligned with response-based practice, and adaptations are suggested. (Author/LRW)