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Honeybees maintain their growth and reproduction mainly by collecting nutrients from nectar-source plants. Apis cerana , a unique species of honeybee in China, is capable of sporadically collecting nectar. In traditional beekeeping, sugar syrup or a honey-water solution must be artificially fed to bees to supplement their diet during rainy weather or nectar-deficient periods. In this study, 2 groups of honeybee colonies were each fed sugar syrup or a honey-water solution, and a third group consisting of colonies that were allowed to naturally forage without any dietary supplement was used as the control. The effects of the 2 sugar sources on A. cerana worker bee offspring were compared. The results showed that the sugar source affected the lifespan and learning memory of the worker bee offspring. The lifespan, learning memory ability, and expression of related genes in the sugar syrup group were significantly lower than those in the honey-water solution and natural nectar foraging groups (P  < 0.05). A honey-water solution supplement was more beneficial to the healthy development of worker bee offspring than a sugar syrup supplement when the colonies lacked dietary resources. These findings provide a theoretical basis that can guide beekeepers in choosing the appropriate dietary supplements for honeybees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are the premier agricultural pollinators with direct ecological value and are key to some agro-economies. Major factors have negatively impacted honey bee health in the past 2 decades with Varroa (Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman) infestation rising as a principal predictor of colony mortality. A key strategy deployed in Varroa management is breeding for resistant honey bee populations that can maintain comparable levels of productivity as nonresistant populations. In this study, we examine one such population, Hilo honey bees, within the context of a common garden contrast with a commercial population in a stationary honey production operation. We compare colony survival, health, yield, and profit outcomes to show how this specific breeding population retains a profit value in honey production operations while maintaining higher survival and lower Varroa infestation levels than the commercial population. This information can be used by commercial beekeepers to make best management practice decisions and inspire further work examining what trade-offs, if any, are present in this Varroa- resistant population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus (PNRSV) and prune dwarf virus (PDV) are pollen-borne viruses of important stone fruit crops, including peaches, which can cause substantial yield loss. Although both horizontal and vertical (i.e., seed) transmission of both viruses occurs through pollen, the role of flower-visiting insects in their transmission is not well understood. Bees and thrips reportedly spread PNRSV and PDV in orchards and greenhouse studies; however, the field spread of PNRSV and PDV in peach orchards in the southeastern United States is not explored. We hypothesized that bees and thrips may facilitate virus spread by carrying virus-positive pollen. Our 2-yr survey results show that 75% of captured bees are carrying virus-positive pollen and moving across the orchard while a subsample of thrips were also found virus positive. Based on morphology, Bombus, Apis, Andrena, Eucera, and Habropoda are the predominant bee genera that were captured in peach orchards. Understanding the role of bees and thrips in the spread of PNRSV and PDV will enhance our understanding of pollen-borne virus ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.; Hymenoptera, Apidae) are the most efficient pollinators in agroecosystems, responsible for the successful production of fruits, nuts, and vegetables, but they continue to face debilitating challenges. One of the major factors leading to these challenges could be linked to poor nutrition that results in weakening the colony, increasing susceptibility to pests and pathogens, and reducing the ability of bees to adapt to other abiotic stresses. Extensively used for commercial pollination, honey bee colonies regularly face exposure to limited diversity in their pollen diet as they are placed in flowering monocrops. Lack of access to diverse plant species compromises the availability of plant secondary compounds (phytochemicals), which, in small amounts, provide significant benefits to honey bee health. We analyzed the beneficial phytochemical content of honey and stored pollen (bee bread) samples from colonies in large apiaries through the active bee season. Samples were evaluated for 4 beneficial phytochemicals (caffeine, kaempferol, gallic acid, and p-coumaric acid), which have previously been shown to improve honey bee health. Our results, as relevant to the apiary locations in the study, indicated that p-coumaric acid is uniformly available throughout the season. Caffeine is completely absent, and gallic acid and kaempferol are not regularly available. Our results suggest the need to explore the potential to deliver beneficial phytochemicals as nutritional supplements to improve bee health. It may be vital for the pollination industry to consider such targeted dietary supplementation as beekeepers strive to meet the increasing demand for crop pollination services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canadian beekeepers faced widespread levels of high honey bee colony mortality over the winter of 2021/2022, with an average winter loss of 45%. To understand the economic impact of winter colony mortality in Canada and the beekeeping management strategies used to mitigate these losses, we develop a profit model of commercial beekeeping operations in Alberta, Canada. Our model shows that for operations engaging in commercial pollination as well as honey production (compared to honey production alone), per colony profit is higher and operations are better able to withstand fluctuations in exogenous variables such as prices and environmental factors affecting productivity including winter mortality rates. The results also suggest that beekeeping operations that replace winter colony losses with splits instead of package bees accrue higher per colony profit than those importing packages to replace losses. Further, operations that produce their own queens to use in their replacement splits, accrue even higher profit. Our results demonstrate that the profitability of beekeeping operations is dependent on several factors including winter mortality rates, colony replacement strategies, and the diversification of revenue sources. Beekeepers who are not as susceptible to price and risk fluctuations in international markets and imported bee risks accrue more consistently positive profits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for honey and pollination services has continued to grow in many countries worldwide, including New Zealand. This has influenced changes in the demographics of the managed population of honey bees (Apis mellifera). We examined historical data to describe how the apicultural demographics in New Zealand have changed temporally and geographically in the four decades to 2020. We also describe trends in honey production and the economic value of pure honey exported from New Zealand between 2000 and 2020. Our findings suggest that commercial apiculture has been key to the intensification of beekeeping in New Zealand during the study period. This is supported by evidence showing pronounced expansion of beekeeping operations among those with more than 1,000 colonies. The intensification has resulted in the density of apiaries increasing threefold across New Zealand during the four decades. While higher numbers of colonies per area produced higher volumes of honey, there was no corresponding improvement in production efficiency. Honey yields per apiary or colony, as indicators of production efficiency, appear to decline from the mid-2000s. The volume of pure honey export increased over 40-fold, a magnitude approximately ten times higher than that of production increase. This reflects a substantial increase in returns from honey exports, mostly driven by the price of mānuka honey. Our findings add to a pool of information to support evidence-based decision making to enhance honey bee health and develop the apicultural industry in New Zealand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about the economics of small-scale beekeeping, due in part because many of these beekeepers are motivated by personal enjoyment and not profit. These beekeepers, however, represent more than 90% of US beekeeping population, so economic analysis of this majority group is warranted. Understanding how management practices impact colony profitability in small apiaries can inform beekeeper management decisions. Best management practices (BMPs) can increase colony productivity and survival, but often require additional labor and materials compared to less intensive beekeeping practices. Here, we investigate the impact of BMPs on the profitability of small-scale beekeeping. We found that BMPs required higher costs in labor and materials, but that they also produced higher revenue from honey and nucleus colony production. As a result, after three years, BMP apiaries were 8 times more profitable than less intensively managed apiaries. The increased profitability in BMP apiaries is largely attributed to improved colony health and survival due to more active Varroa management and reduced Varroa and viral loads. These results can inform small scale beekeeper budgeting and management, and also support extension efforts to increase BMP adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] cultivation has substantially transformed the Midwestern landscape in recent decades. Floral nectar produced by immense fields of soybeans has the potential to influence foraging ecology and resource accumulation of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies. In this study, we combined microscopic and molecular pollen analysis of honey samples with waggle dance inference of spatial foraging patterns to demonstrate that honey bees routinely forage on soybeans in Ohio. In analyzing honey samples from across the state, we found ubiquitous presence of soybean pollen in honey collected from agricultural lands during soybean bloom. The abundance of soybean pollen in honey increased with the amount of soybean fields surrounding the apiaries. Honey bee waggle dances recorded during soybean bloom revealed that honey bees preferred soybean fields for foraging over other habitat types. With these results, future research efforts aimed at enhancing mutual interactions between soybeans and honey bees may represent an unexplored pathway for increasing soybean production while supporting honey bees and other pollinators in the surrounding landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beekeeping contributes to poverty reduction in many developing countries, and in addition, provides pollination services for sustainable crop production. In Nepal, management practices associated with beekeeping are poorly characterized, and so the potential for this sector to further contribute to livelihood development remains unclear. This study sought to examine and identify factors associated with production efficiency and financial profitability of beekeeping with the aim of enhancing economic gains for Nepali beekeepers. Our study included a sample of 150 respondents from more than twenty commercial beekeeping districts across the Terai and mountainous regions of Nepal. Profitability of beekeeping with the European honeybee (Apis mellifera) Linnaeus, 1758 (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and the Asian honeybee Apis cerana Fabricius, 1793 (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was quantified and disaggregated according to several variables, including hive-derived products produced, marketing strategy employed, number of beehives managed, and postharvest management practices. Our results showed that the different types of management practices adopted (such as number of beehives kept, colony multiplication, supplementary feeding, month of honey harvesting, and marketing approach) significantly influenced the productivity and economic profitability of beekeeping. Our results also revealed that professional supports, such as the availability of subsidies and training, were key factors to enhance productivity. As a whole, this study provides insight into the biological factors and management practices associated with higher economic returns from beekeeping. This work can help guide policymakers and professional support agencies to expand commercial beekeeping for sustainable livelihood development in Nepal and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To gauge the impact of COVID-19 on the Canadian beekeeping sector, we conducted a survey of over 200 beekeepers in the fall of 2020. Our survey results show Canadian beekeepers faced two major challenges: 1) disrupted importation of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) (queen and bulk bees) that maintain populations; and 2) disrupted arrival of temporary foreign workers (TFWs). Disruptions in the arrival of bees and labor resulted in fewer colonies and less colony management, culminating in higher costs and lower productivity. Using the survey data, we develop a profitability analysis to estimate the impact of these disruptions on colony profit. Our results suggest that a disruption in either foreign worker or bee arrival allows beekeepers to compensate and while colony profits are lower, they remain positive. When both honey bee and foreign workers arrivals are disrupted for a beekeeper, even when the beekeeper experiences less significant colony health and cost impacts, a colony with a single pollination contract is no longer profitable, and a colony with two pollination contracts has significantly reduced profitability. As COVID-19 disruptions from 2020 and into 2021 become more significant to long-term colony health and more costly to a beekeeping operation, economic losses could threaten the industry's viability as well as the sustainability of pollination-dependent crop sectors across the country. The economic and agricultural impacts from the COVID-19 pandemic have exposed a vulnerability within Canada's beekeeping industry stemming from its dependency on imported labor and bees. Travel disruptions and border closures pose an ongoing threat to Canadian agriculture and apiculture in 2021 and highlight the need for Canada's beekeeping industry to strengthen domestic supply chains to minimize future risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decline in managed honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colony health worldwide has had a significant impact on the beekeeping industry. To mitigate colony losses, beekeepers in Canada and around the world introduce queens into replacement colonies; however, Canada's short queen rearing season has historically limited the production of early season queens. As a result, Canadian beekeepers rely on the importation of foreign bees, particularly queens from warmer climates. Importing a large proportion of (often mal-adapted) queens each year creates a dependency on foreign bee sources, putting beekeeping, and pollination sectors at risk in the event of border closures, transportation issues, and other restrictions as is currently happening due to the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic. Although traditional Canadian queen production is unable to fully meet early season demand, increasing domestic queen production to meet mid- and later season demand would reduce Canada's dependency. As well, on-going studies exploring the potential for overwintering queens in Canada may offer a strategy to have early season domestic queens available. Increasing the local supply of queens could provide Canadian beekeepers, farmers, and consumers with a greater level of agricultural stability and food security. Our study is the first rigorous analysis of the economic feasibility of queen production. We present the costs of queen production for three Canadian operations over two years. Our results show that it can be profitable for a beekeeping operation in Canada to produce queen cells and mated queens and could be one viable strategy to increase the sustainability of the beekeeping industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The honey bee queen plays a central role in the Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colony, and her high reproductive capacity is fundamental for building up the workforce of a colony. Caste development in honey bee females involves elaborate physiological pathways unleashed at the beginning of the first larval instars, with juvenile hormone (JH) playing a crucial role. Here we took advantage of established in vitro rearing techniques to conduct a 2 × 2 experimental design and test initial rearing age (young vs old) and JH treatment (JH III vs solvent control) to enlighten the role of nutrient quality and JH in shaping honey bee female fertility, morphological features related to queenliness, and key physiological parameters (hemolymph vitellogenin/Vg, sugar levels, and Vg transcript levels). Our results show that while the age at initial larval rearing had major impacts on external morphology development, where younger larvae exhibited a higher probability to develop into queen-like adults morphotypes, the JH application during the larval stage improved physiological pathways related to ovary development and metabolism during the ontogenic development. We detected that the supplementation of queen larvae with JH promoted important benefits regarding queen fertility as the increase of ovariole number and vg levels at hemolymph, both crucial factors at eggs production. The data presented here provide guidance in efforts to improve honey bee queen quality, especially in light of frequent episodes of queen failures in the beekeeping industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The parasitic mite Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) is a major cause of overwintering honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony losses in the United States, suggesting that beekeepers must control Varroa populations to maintain viable colonies. Beekeepers have access to several chemical varroacides and nonchemical practices to control Varroa populations. However, no studies have examined large-scale patterns in Varroa control methods in the United States. Here we used responses from 4 yr of annual surveys of beekeepers representing all regions and operation sizes across the United States to investigate use of Varroa control methods and winter colony losses associated with use of different methods. We focused on seven varroacide products (amitraz, coumaphos, fluvalinate, hop oil, oxalic acid, formic acid, and thymol) and six nonchemical practices (drone brood removal, small-cell comb, screened bottom boards, powdered sugar, mite-resistant bees, and splitting colonies) suggested to aid in Varroa control. We found that nearly all large-scale beekeepers used at least one varroacide, whereas small-scale beekeepers were more likely to use only nonchemical practices or not use any Varroa control. Use of varroacides was consistently associated with the lowest winter losses, with amitraz being associated with lower losses than any other varroacide product. Among nonchemical practices, splitting colonies was associated with the lowest winter losses, although losses associated with sole use of nonchemical practices were high overall. Our results suggest potential control methods that are effective or preferred by beekeepers and should therefore inform experiments that directly test the efficacy of different control methods. This will allow beekeepers to incorporate Varroa control methods into management plans that improve the overwintering success of their colonies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) technology have seldom been used in apiculture. We applied these tools to map the optimum honey bee colony carrying capacity and estimate honey production during the honey flow of 'Talh' trees (Acacia gerrardii Benth. [Fabaceae: Mimosoideae]) in the Rawdat-Khuraim oasis, central Saudi Arabia. A SPOT 5 panchromatic image (2.5-m resolution) was used to delineate the distribution of Talh trees. ArcGIS was used in image processing and data management, analysis, and visualization. The outputs were maps of Talh distribution, an optimum spatiotemporal beekeeping plan, and predicted potential honey yield. Each Talh tree was predicted to produce a theoretical maximum of 8.5-kg Talh honey per season. Under the current nonoptimum distribution of apiaries, Rawdat-Khuraim produces 4,876-kg honey per season. Optimally, it should produce 9,619-kg honey per season from 1,278 colonies distributed in 12 beekeeping sites. This study provides a technical approach for the use of RS and GIS in describing, planning, and managing honey flows and predicting honey harvest through a spatiotemporal workflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant pesticide residues are among the most serious problems for sustainable agriculture. In the beekeeping environment, pesticides not only impact a honey bee's survival, but they also contaminate bee products. Taiwan's agricultural environment has suffered from pesticide stress that was higher than that found in Europe and America. This study deciphered problems of pesticide residues in fresh honey bee pollen samples collected from 14 monitoring apiaries in Taiwan, which reflected significant contaminations within the honey bee population. In total, 155 pollen samples were screened for 232 pesticides, and 56 pesticides were detected. Among the residues, fluvalinate and chlorpyrifos showed the highest concentrations, followed by carbendazim, carbaryl, chlorfenapyr, imidacloprid, ethion, and flufenoxuron. The average frequency of pesticide residues detected in pollen samples was ca. 74.8%. The amounts and types of pesticides were higher in winter and in southwestern Taiwan. Moreover, five of these pollen samples were contaminated with 11-15 pesticides, with average levels between 1,560 and 6,390 lg/kg. Compared with the literature, this study emphasized that pollen gathered by honey bee was highly contaminated with more pesticides in Taiwan than in the America, France, and Spain. The ubiquity of pesticides in the pollen samples was likely due to the field applications of common pesticides. Recently, the Taiwanese government began to improve the pesticide policy. According to the resurvey data in 2016, there were reductions in several pesticide contamination parameters in pollen samples from west to southwest Taiwan. A long-term investigation of pollen pesticide residues should be conducted to inspect pesticides usage in Taiwan's agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increased annual losses in European honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in North America and some other countries is usually attributed to a range of factors including pathogens, poor nutrition, and insecticides. In this essay, I will argue that the global trade in honey bees and migratory beekeeping practices within countries has enabled pathogens to spread quickly. Beekeepers' management strategies have also contributed to the spread of pathogens as well as the development of resistance to miticides and antibiotics, and exacerbated by hobby beekeepers. The opportunities for arresting honey bee declines rest as strongly with individual beekeepers as they do with the dynamics of disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sublethal exposure to fungicides can affect honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in ways that resemble malnutrition. These include reduced brood rearing, queen loss, and increased pathogen levels. We examined the effects of oral exposure to the fungicides boscalid and pyraclostrobin on factors affecting colony nutrition and immune function including pollen consumption, protein digestion, hemolymph protein titers, and changes in virus levels. Because the fungicides are respiratory inhibitors, we also measured ATP concentrations in flight muscle. The effects were evaluated in 3- and 7-d-old worker bees at high fungicide concentrations in cage studies, and at field-relevant concentrations in colony studies. Though fungicide levels differed greatly between the cage and colony studies, similar effects were observed. Hemolymph protein concentrations were comparable between bees feeding on pollen with and without added fungicides. However, in both cage and colony studies, bees consumed less pollen containing fungicides and digested less of the protein. Bees fed fungicide-treated pollen also had lower ATP concentrations and higher virus titers. The combination of effects we detected could produce symptoms that are similar to those from poor nutrition and weaken colonies making them more vulnerable to loss fromadditional stressors such as parasites and pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Two types of honey bees, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), bred for resistance to Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman were evaluated for performance when used ill migratory crop pollination. Colonies of Russian honey bees (RHB) and outcrossed bees with Varroa-sensitive hygiene (VSH) were managed without miticide treatments and compared with colonies of Italian honey bees that served as controls. Control colonies were managed as groups which either were treated twice each year against V. destructor (CT) or kept untreated (CU). Totals of 240 and 247 colonies were established initially for trials in 2008 and 2009, respectively. RHB and VSH colonies generally had adult and brood populations similar to those of the standard CT group regarding pollination requirements. For pollination of almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb] in February, percentages of colonies meeting the required six or more frames of adult bees were 57% (VSH), 56% (CT), 39% (RHB), and 34% (CU). RHB are known to have small colonies in early spring, but this can be overcome with appropriate feeding. For later pollination requirements in May to July, 94-100% of colonies in the four groups met pollination size requirements for apples (Malus domestica Borkh.), cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton), and lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton). Infestations with V. destructor usually were lowest in CT colonies and tended to be lower in VSH colonies than in RHB and CU colonies. This study demonstrates that bees with the VSH trait and pure RHB offer alternatives for beekeepers to use for commercial crop pollination while reducing reliance on miticides. The high frequency of queen loss (only approximately one fourth of original queens survived each year) suggests that frequent requeening is necessary to maintain desired genetics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple infections of managed honeybee, Apis mellifera, colonies are inevitable due to the ubiquitous ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and might be an underlying cause of winter losses. Here we investigated the role of adult small hive beetles, Aethina tumida, alone and in combination with V. destructor for winter losses and for infections with the microsporidian endoparasite Nosema ceranae. We found no significant influence of A. tumida and V. destructor alone or in combination on the numbers of N. ceranae spores. Likewise, A. tumida alone had no significant effects on winter losses, which is most likely due to the observed high winter mortality of the adult beetles. Therefore, our data suggest that A. tumida is unlikely to contribute to losses of overwintering honeybee colonies. However, high losses occurred in all groups highly infested with V. destructor, supporting the central role of the mite for colony losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we evaluated the potential use of entomopathogenic nematodes as a control for the beetle Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). In particular, we conducted 1) four screening bioassays to determine nematode (seven species, 10 total strains tested) and application level effects on A. tumida larvae and pupae, 2) a generational persistence bioassay to determine whether single inoculations with nematodes would control multiple generations of A. tumida larvae in treated soil, and 3) a field bioassay to determine whether the nematodes would remain efficacious in the field. In the screening bioassays, nematode efficacy varied significantly by tested nematode and the infective juvenile (IJ) level at which they were applied. Although nematode virulence was moderate in screening bioassays 1-3 (0-68% A. tumida mortality), A. tumida mortality approached higher levels in screening bioassay 4 (nearly 100% after 39 d) that suggest suitable applicability of some of the test nematodes as field controls for A. tumida. In the generational persistence bioassay, Steinet-neina riobrave Cabanillas, Poinar & Raulston 7-12 strain and Heterorhabditis indica Poinar, Karunaka & David provided adequate A. tumida control for 19 wk after a single soil inoculation (76-94% mortality in A. tumida pupae). In the field bioassay, the same two nematode species also showed high virulence toward pupating A. tumida (88-100%) mortality. Our data suggest that nematode use may be an integral component of an integrated pest management scheme aimed at reducing A. tumida populations in bee colonies to tolerable levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been major structural changes in the beekeeping industry over the past 25 yr. The U.S. Census of Agriculture surveys indicate that colony inventory declined >20% between 1982 and 2002, whereas the number of U.S. farms with apiculture enterprises fell >70%. This decline in farm numbers was not uniform across different sized farms based on colony inventory-nearly 30,000 of the farms exiting the apiculture business had fewer than 25 colonies. With the number of farms declining faster than colony inventory, there has been a shift to larger farms. The Appalachia, Corn Belt, and Northeast states have the highest shares of apiculture farms, whereas the Pacific, Northern Plains, and Mountain states account for the largest shares of colonies. Farms with apiculture enterprises are concentrated in the smallest sales categories - 87% of such farms had <$50,000 in sales in 2002. Only about one third of farms with apiculture activity reported that a majority of sales were from apiculture products-such as honey or colony sales. Compared with all U.S. farms, per farm payments for all types of government programs were smaller for farms with apiculture activities. Only about half of all beekeepers regard farming as their primary occupation, and nearly 60% of the operators work off the farm at least 1 d a year and ≈40% work >200 d off the farm in a given year. Beekeepers resembled all other farmers demographically - nearly 90% are white males, with an average age of 55. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated the performance of six named types of package honey bees, Apis mellifera L (Hymenoptera: Apidae), from four commercial producers. We examined the effects of levels of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman, the endoparasitic mite Acarapis woodi (Rennie),the gut parasite Nosema (species not determined) in samples from bees in 48 packages, and levels of adult drones in the same packages on corresponding levels of those same traits in the fall in colonies that developed from those 48 packages. After package installation, we measured the rate of queen failure, the removal of freeze-killed brood (an assay to assess hygienic behavior), varroa-sensitive hygiene, and short-term weight gain in all colonies. We examined the correlations among these traits and the effect of initial package conditions and package-type on the expression of these traits. In general, differences among sources were not significant, except that we did observe significant differences in the proportion of mite infected worker brood in the fall. There was no significant difference in weight gain in colonies established from nosema-infected packages versus those established from noninfected packages. Freeze-killed hygienic behavior and varroa-sensitive hygienic behavior were positively correlated, suggesting that both traits could be selected simultaneously. Neither trait was correlated with colony weight gain, suggesting that both traits could be selected without compromising honey production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT To compare resistance to small hive beetles (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) between Russian and commercial Italian honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae), the numbers of invading beetles, their population levels through time and small hive beetle reproduction inside the colonies were monitored. We found that the genotype of queens introduced into nucleus colonies had no immediate effect on small hive beetle invasion. However, the influence of honey bee stock on small hive beetle invasion was pronounced once test bees populated the hives. In colonies deliberately freed from small hive beetle during each observation period, the average number of invading beetles was higher in the Italian colonies (29 ± 5 beetles) than in the Russian honey bee colonies (16 ± 3 beetles). A similar trend was observed in colonies that were allowed to be freely colonized by beetles throughout the experimental period (Italian, 11.46 ± 1.35; Russian, 5.21 ± 0.66 beetles). A linear regression analysis showed no relationships between the number of beetles in the colonies and adult bee population (r[sup2] = 0.1034, P = 0.297), brood produced (r[sup2] = 0.1488, P = 0.132), or amount of pollen (r[sup2] = 0.1036, P = 0.295). There were more Italian colonies that supported small hive beetle reproduction than Russian colonies. Regardless of stock, the use of entrance reducers had a significant effect on the average number of small hive beetle (with reducer, 16 ± 3; without reducer, 27 ± 5 beetles). However, there was no effect on bee population (with reducer, 13.20 ± 0.71; without reducer, 14.60 ± 0.70 frames) or brood production (with reducer, 6.12 ± 0.30; without reducer, 6.44 ± 0.34 frames). Overall, Russian honey bees were more resistant to small hive beetle than Italian honey bees as indicated by fewer invading beetles, lower small hive beetle population through time, and lesser reproduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the introduction of exotic honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) diseases in the eastern states, the borders of the state of Western Australia were closed to the import of bees for breeding and other purposes >25 yr ago. To provide genetically improved stock for the industry, a closed population breeding program was established that now provides stock for the majority of Western Australian beekeepers. Given concerns that inbreeding may have resulted from the closed population breeding structure, we assessed the genetic diversity within and between the breeding lines by using microsatellite and mitochondrial markers. We found that the breeding population still maintains considerable genetic diversity, despite 25 yr of selective breeding. We also investigated the genetic distance of the closed population breeding program to that of beekeepers outside of the program, and the feral Western Australian honey bee population. The feral population is genetically distinct from the closed population, but not from the genetic stock maintained by beekeepers outside of the program. The honey bees of Western Australia show three mitotypes, originating from two subspecies: Apis mellifera ligustica (mitotypes C1 and M7b) and Apis mellifera iberica (mitotype M6). Only mitotypes C1 and M6 are present in the commercial populations. The feral population contains all three mitotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of changes in spring pollen diet on the development of honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), colonies were examined in a 3-yr study (2002–2004). Pollen-supplemented and pollen-limited conditions were created in colonies every spring, and brood rearing and honey yields were subsequently monitored throughout the summer. In all 3 yr, colonies that were supplemented with pollen or a pollen substitute in the spring started rearing brood earlier than colonies in other treatment groups and produced the most workers by late April or early May. In 2002, these initial differences were reflected by a two-fold increase in annual honey yields by September for colonies that were pollen-supplemented during the spring compared with pollen-limited colonies. In 2003 and 2004, differences between treatment groups in the cumulative number of workers produced by colonies disappeared by midsummer, and all colonies had similar annual honey yields (exception: in one year, productivity was low for colonies supplemented with pollen before wintering). Discrepancies between years coincided with differences in spring weather conditions. Colonies supplemented with pollen or a substitute during the spring performed similarly in all respects. These results indicate that an investment in supplementing the pollen diet of colonies would be returned for situations in which large spring populations are important, but long-term improvement in honey yields may only result when spring foraging is severely reduced by inclement weather. Beekeepers should weigh this information against the nutritional deficiencies that are frequently generated in colonies by the stresses of commercial management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study that explored management methods for honey bee greenhouse tomato pollination. Effect of initial amounts of brood on colony population size and flight activity in screened greenhouses during the winter; Materials and methods used; Results of the study.

Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies bred for hygienic behavior were tested in a large field trial to determine if they were able to resist the parasitic mite Varroa destructor better than unselected colonies of “Starline” stock. Colonies bred for hygienic behavior are able to detect, uncap, and remove experimentally infested brood from the nest, although the extent to which the behavior actually reduces the overall mite-load in untreated, naturally infested colonies needed further verification. The results indicate that hygienic colonies with queens mated naturally to unselected drones had significantly fewer mites on adult bees and within worker brood cells than Starline colonies for up to 1 yr without treatment in a commercial, migratory beekeeping operation. Hygienic colonies actively defended themselves against the mites when mite levels were relatively low. At high mite infestations (>15% of worker brood and of adult bees), the majority of hygienic colonies required treatment to prevent collapse. Overall, the hygienic colonies had similar adult populations and brood areas, produced as much honey, and had less brood disease than the Starline colonies. Thus, honey bees bred for hygienic behavior performed as well if not better than other commercial lines of bees and maintained lower mite loads for up to one year without treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]