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Background: Instructional videos constitute a pivotal component in flipped learning. Despite their significance, there is a dearth of research specifically dedicated to instructional videos within the context of flipped classrooms. This paucity has led to an empirical void in verifying the efficacy of instructional videos in flipped learning environments. Objectives: The present study endeavours to contribute to the extant literature on flipped pedagogical practices by providing empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of instructional videos in flipped learning environments. Methods: This study employs a convergent mixed‐methods design. Forty‐five instructional videos in three subtypes were administered in two classes over a 15‐week semester. Data, both quantitative (log data from the learning management system) and qualitative (from focus group discussions at two time points), were concurrently collected from a flipped class (n = 25) and a blended class (n = 28) with the aim of gauging student engagement and learning outcomes in the flipped class and understanding video‐viewing features typical of the flipped class. Results: Both datasets corroborated that participants in the flipped class outperformed their counterparts in the blended class in terms of video‐watching, peer interaction, knowledge retention, and transfer skills. Conclusions: The instructional videos within the flipped classroom setting serve to enhance student engagement in the learning process and improve learning outcomes. The efficacy of these instructional videos in flipped learning can be further augmented through strategic approaches in both their design and implementation. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topic: The flipping pedagogy is conducive to learning.Videos play a crucial role in flipped learning.Videos prepared students for classroom activities.However, engaging students with pre‐class videos presents a challenge. What this paper adds: This paper furnishes direct empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of instructional videos in flipped learning.It uncovers factors affecting student engagement with videos in flipped learning.It offers insights into the design and implementation of videos in flipped learning. Implications for practice: Considering facilitating conditions and affective factors when creating videos.Acknowledging learner characteristics when designing videos.Utilizing instructional strategies when implementing videos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: With the growing integration of technology in education, the adoption of blended learning (b‐learning) has gained attention. B‐learning combines traditional classroom teaching with online components, holding potential to enhance student outcomes and educational efficiency. Yet, current research predominantly concentrates on higher education institutions in urban areas, creating a void in understanding its impact on K‐12 education, particularly in rural settings. Objectives: This qualitative study aims to propose recommendations for successful implementation of blended learning in rural K‐12 areas by addressing the key stakeholders influencing its adoption and identifying the main factors affecting its success. Methods: We performed a content analysis of grey literature documents detailing the implementation of b‐learning in K‐12 education. Additionally, interviews with crucial stakeholders such as teachers, principals, and experts in rural schools in South America provide insights into the challenges and prospects of b‐learning adoption in these contexts. Results and Conclusions: The study identifies pivotal stakeholders for effective b‐learning implementation, outlining their roles and addressing challenges inherent in rural settings. Recommendations for enhancing b‐learning's implementation in developing countries are also proposed. The research underscores the significance of involving diverse stakeholders such as governmental bodies, school leaders, educators, students, and families to ensure a holistic and efficient approach to blended learning. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topic: Blended Learning Definition and Benefits: Blended learning combines face‐to‐face and online instruction, enhancing student engagement and personalization by providing diverse learning pathways.Growth in K‐12 Implementation: Blended learning gained traction in K‐12 education, boosting academic outcomes, driven by recognition of learner diversity and potential in meeting students' needs.Contextual Challenges: Implementation challenges arise in low‐income households and rural areas, including limited access to technology and internet connectivity, impacting student engagement and success. What does this paper add: Focusing on Rural Dynamics: This study helps to fill a gap by investigating blended learning in rural K‐12 settings, spotlighting key players and success drivers in these unique contexts.Recommendations from Various Sources: By combining interviews and grey literature, this research generates comprehensive, practical recommendations grounded in both empirical insights and real‐world perspectives.Insights into Rural Hurdles: This paper extends the discussion on blended learning by addressing specific rural barriers, proposing family involvement, private sector partnerships for training, and tailored pedagogical strategies. Implications for practice or policy: Leadership and Collaboration: Effective school leadership and collaboration with local governments are pivotal for fruitful blended learning implementation, ensuring defined roles, responsibility, and accountability.Adaptable Curriculum Design: An adaptable, centralized curriculum aligns with recommendations, fostering efficient tracking of student progress and enabling customized learning.Engagement‐Centric Pedagogies: Recommendations spotlight interactive, student‐centered teaching methods, tailored to diverse student needs, nurturing active participation and elevated learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virtual reality (VR) offers much potential for learning, but it challenges learners' orientation. Objectives: This paper investigates whether it is possible to use light or movement cues to facilitate orientation in a search task in a desktop‐VR environment so that participants can better attend to the learning content presented simultaneously. Methods: In two pre‐registered online experiments, we investigated the effects of cueing (light and movement) on search time, learning, and several evaluation variables. Participants were asked to find tools in a virtual workshop, while information about the respective tool was narrated. Experiment 1 (N = 60) used a within‐subject design, that is, the objects were alternately highlighted by light, movement or not. For Experiment 2 (N = 159) the narration was substantially shortened, and a between‐subject design was used. Cognitive load and presence were measured additionally. Results and conclusions: In Experiment 1, only the movement cue decreased search time, indicating automatic guidance of learners' attention. There was no effect of cueing on learning, which may be due to the average search time being substantially shorter than the narration, leaving sufficient time to attend to the narration exclusively. In Experiment 2 search times were significantly faster for both cueing methods, but only the light cue resulted in better learning outcomes, which could be explained by the slightly lower presence in the movement cue condition. Implications: Results imply that it is important to develop cues that automatically guide attention without reducing presence. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Virtual reality (VR) offers a lot of opportunities for the integration of educational scenarios.VR is challenging for learners with regard to orientation in a 360° environment.Regarding learning outcomes, research on the effects of cues to highlight important content in a 360° environment is still rare.Presence, defined as the feeling of being there in a VR environment, is an important prerequisite for learning in VR. What this paper adds: The influence of light and movement cues on search times and learning outcomes in a desktop‐VR environment was tested.Movement cues can reliably reduce search times (indicating successful orientation), whereas light cues only reduced search times in predictable scenarios.In a predictable scenario, light cues enhanced learning outcomes compared with movement cues.Movement cues reduced presence, which is one potential reason why movement cues did not improve learning. Implications for practice and/or policy: Using light cues might assist orientation and enhance overall performance in predictable scenarios (i.e., when learners know what kind of cue to expect).In an unpredictable setting with variable cues, light cues did not facilitate orientation, whereas movement cues did.However, movement cues reduced presence, which may have negatively affected learning outcomes. It is important to develop cueing methods that also work in more unpredictable settings, but that do not reduce presence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study: Virtual reality (VR) is becoming a popular technology for safety training in construction. Several VR training prototypes have been designed and tested, which show they can perform better than traditional training tools. However, most of these existing tools are not underpinned by clear pedagogical theory, and studies assessing the impact of pedagogical theories on the effectiveness of VR prototypes are still rare in the literature. Objectives: This study aims to investigate if and how the productive failure theory and the directive instruction theory have an impact on the effectiveness of VR safety training for confined space workers. Methods: The study used a randomized controlled method involving 74 participants. The effectiveness of these two training methods was assessed in terms of knowledge acquisition and retention. Results and Conclusions: The results illustrate that the productive failure training design performed better in terms of knowledge acquisition and retention. This paper introduces the Productive Failure Theory and shows the great potential of this approach for self‐service VR safety training in the field of construction. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: PF has been proven effective in classroom‐based teaching practice.PF has been proven effective in non‐immersive virtual training.DI is a commonly used pedagogical method for VR training. What this paper adds: The present paper investigates the feasibility of applying PF theory in VR safety training.The present paper examines the pedagogical impacts of the two pedagogical approaches within VR serious games. Implications for practice and/or policy: PF can be applied to self‐help VR safety training, reducing the demand for resources such as teaching staff and venues.PF training design performed better in terms of knowledge acquisition and retention.PF has great potential for self‐help VR safety training in various fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The potential of learning analytics dashboards in virtual reality simulation‐based training environments to influence occupational self‐efficacy via self‐reflection phase processes in the Chemical industry is still not fully understood. Learning analytics dashboards provide feedback on learner performance and offer points of comparison (i.e., comparison with one's own past performance or comparison with peer performance) to help learners make sense of their feedback. Objectives: We present a theoretical framework for describing learning analytics reference frames and investigate the impact of feedback delivered through dashboards with different reference frames on occupational self‐efficacy, while controlling for workplace self‐reflection. Methods: This experimental study engaged 42 chemical operator employees, aged between 18 and 55 years, each with at least one year of experience. We utilised a two‐group design to ask two research question each with three competing hypotheses related to changes in occupational self‐efficacy, employing Bayesian informative hypothesis evaluation. Results and Conclusions: Results for the primary research question suggest that dashboards with progress reference frames do not elicit greater change to self‐efficacy than those with social reference frames, however, they may elicit equal change. Furthermore, dashboards with social reference frames may elicit greater change to self‐efficacy than those with progress reference frames. Exploratory results found that dashboards with progress reference frames may elicit greater positive directional change than those with social reference frames and that they may elicit equal directional change. These findings contribute to the understanding of self‐efficacy beliefs within the Chemical industry, with potential impacts on skill development. The research may inform the design of targeted interventions and training programs to influence self‐efficacy. From a practical perspective, this research suggests that careful consideration is needed when choosing reference frames in learning analytics dashboards due to their potential consequences on the formation of learner self‐efficacy. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: Learning analytics dashboards often aim to stimulate self‐regulated learning by providing feedback.Feedback plays a crucial role in simulation‐based learning and learning analytics dashboards can be a valuable tool to deliver feedback and facilitate the learning process by providing learners with insights into their performance and progress.Previous research has highlighted the importance of reference frames as critical design features of learning analytics dashboards, as they assist learners in making sense of learning analytics feedback.Self‐efficacy is a powerful determine factor of workplace performance and is influenced by mastery experiences and social modelling information. What the paper adds?: A theoretical framework describes the mediating role self‐reflection phase processes of the self‐regulated learning cycle plays in the formation of occupational self‐efficacy.This paper introduces the concept of three learning analytics reference frame components which include the performance outcome component, point of comparison component and score delta component.The paper indicates that learning analytics dashboards designed with a progress reference frame does not elicit greater change to occupational self‐efficacy than the social reference frame.Exploratory results suggest dashboards with progress reference frames might produce greater positive directional change compared to social reference frames or elicit equal change. Implications for practice?: Learning analytics system designers who use reference frames to help learners make sense of their feedback should carefully consider which reference frames they use as these decisions likely have consequences on the formation of learner self‐efficacy beliefs.For LAD designers and stakeholders, recognising the absolute change and directional shift in self‐efficacy is crucial, as LAD designs significantly influence these dynamics and guide the tailoring of effective tools.In industries like the chemical sector, where overconfidence can result in severe consequences, understanding the nuance of self‐efficacy changes is especially pertinent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Previous studies have shown that dynamic illustrations, as compared to their static counterparts, lead to higher achievement levels, especially for hand‐based procedures. Other researchers have investigated how the presence of seductive details (i.e., appealing but irrelevant adjunct displays) influences students' interest positively but their learning negatively. Objectives: The purpose of the two present studies was to investigate the effects of animated versus static presentations, combined with the presence of seductive details, on student performance on a paper‐folding task (i.e., origami) in a naturalistic school environment. Methods: Fifty‐five children (5–6 years old) participated in the first study and were randomly assigned to one of four groups. The second study was conducted with older children (72 s or third graders) and a more complex origami task. Results and Conclusions: In the first study, results demonstrated negative effects of seductive details on children's performance and time on task, but no effects of presentation format. In the second study, no negative effects of seductive details on student achievement were found, but animated illustrations significantly improved children's performance and reduced time on task. However, seductive details tended to impair learning more greatly given the presence of static, as compared to animated, presentations. Task difficulties and pupils' ability to inhibit irrelevant information may explain these results. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Seductive details negatively influence young children's performance.Animated illustrations have been shown to improve students' learning for dynamic procedure. What this paper adds: This is the first study investigating the influence of animated vs. static illustrations combined with seductive details on children's learning performance.Animated illustrations improve children's performance for a challenging dynamic procedure.Seductive details tended to impair more learning from static than from animated presentations.Results are discussed in relation to the task's difficulty as well as students' ability to inhibit irrelevant information. Implications for practitioners: Animated illustrations should be used when presenting dynamic procedures.Instructors should use seductive details cautiously in pedagogical documents particularly when the task is difficult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Studies: Captioning and repetition are widely used multimedia instructional devices for non‐native students. Generally, studies in this area have tended to focus on second language literacy skills rather than on learning new content knowledge. Additionally, posttests were administered immediately after the treatments, while the delayed influences of captioning and repetition have never been investigated. Objectives: This paper addressed these research gaps in two separate studies. More specifically, this study attempted to examine the influences of captioning and repetition on non‐native students' immediate and relayed retention. Methods: In Study One, three captioning conditions; word‐by‐word captions, closed captions, and no‐captions; were compared to examine their efficacies in immediate and delayed content knowledge retention on 82 Chinese university students. To address the limitations in Study One as the multimedia lesson was short and played only once, Study Two incorporated captioning and two repetition types in its design. One hundred and eleven Chinese university students watch a video lesson in one of four captioning and repetition conditions. Results: The statistical analyses of Study One indicated that there were no significant differences in both immediate and delayed retention test scores across the three captioning condition. Similarly, in Study Two, there were no significant differences in retention tests scores across the four captioning and repetition conditions. Findings: Neither the availability of captions nor the repetition types had any impact on the Chinese students' immediate or delayed content knowledge retention, which lent support to existing studies. Based on the research results, the limitations and future study possibilities are discussed. Lay Description: What Is Already Known About This TopicEmpirical studies on captioning have focused on immediate learning right after the treatment, so have studies on repetition.Empirical studies on multimedia lessons for non‐native students have focused on English language learning. What This Paper AddsThree types of captioning were compared to examine their efficacies in both immediate and delayed content retention of Chinese students.Two types of repetition were compared to examine their efficacies in both immediate and delayed content retention of Chinese students. Implications for Practice and/or Policy:Neither the availability of captions nor the repetition types had any impact on the Chinese students' immediate or delayed content knowledge retention.The availability of textual keywords adjacent to their corresponding graphics might have compromised the efficacy of captioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study: The research discusses the need for a paradigm shift in engineering education current practices to accommodate the digital native students. The paper emphasizes the importance of integrating disruptive technologies, namely Virtual Reality (VR) through Head Mounted Displays VR (HMD VR) and Desktop Based VR (DB VR) and comparing it with the traditional teaching methods. The research focuses on second‐year undergraduate students enrolled in a concrete structures course. Objectives: The objective of the study is to analyse the impact of DB VR and HMD VR on students' motivation, performance and workload in comparison with traditional 2D drawings. The study also aims to investigate how simulation sickness and system usability could impact students' motivation and performance when interpreting concrete structures. Methods: The study divided second‐year civil engineering students into three groups, 2D, DB VR and HMD VR. The performance and motivation levels of students were assessed based on the number of mistakes identified and an intrinsic motivation survey. Furthermore, data on system usability and simulation sickness were collected. Spearman rank correlation was conducted to analyse the relationships between the variables tested. Results: The results have shown that students' motivation and performance were much higher when using VR in general and HMD VR specifically, students' efficiency and accuracy were also observed. On the other hand, usability was found to be moderately correlated with motivation, with students rating HMD VR as the most usable approach. A moderate inverse correlation was observed between simulation sickness and motivation, indicating that higher simulation sickness led to lower motivation levels. Conclusion: The study concludes that integrating VR in general, DB VR, or HMD VR into a concrete structures course for undergraduate students can significantly improve students' performance and motivation. Furthermore, enhancing usability of any of the methods used can also improve the performance and motivation. On the other hand, simulation sickness inversely affects motivation and performance, therefore, VR developers and educators should not neglect it. Lay Description: What is already known about the topic: Traditional teaching methods in engineering education require improvement.Integrating digital technologies into engineering education enhances performance.Digital technologies can potentially enhance motivation. What this paper adds: Compares traditional teaching methods for concrete structures interpretation with virtual reality.Establishes correlations between motivation, performance and usabilityIntroduces how desktop‐based VR and head‐mounted display VR can produce varying results. Implications for practice and/or policy: Decision‐makers can use the information to integrate updated pedagogy into engineering curricula.Allows for further exploration of different digital technologies that can be used for concrete structure interpretation.Allows instructors to introduce virtual reality in their courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In 2018, it was found that only a quarter of Grade 3 children in India were reading at grade level. A growing demand for English education has further limited children's literacy achievement. Despite a strong evidence base in favour of using systematic phonics for building English literacy skills, many teachers in India continue to use rote‐methods of literacy instruction. Objectives: We aimed to examine the efficacy of GraphoLearn (GL) English Rime, a computer‐assisted reading intervention, in improving the foundational literacy skills of 1st and 2nd grade students who were attending an English medium school in India. Methods: A total of 136 students across 6 classrooms were randomly allocated to play either GL or a control math game over a 5‐week intervention period. Students were pre‐ and post‐tested on various English literacy skills using tasks built into the GL software as well as through oral and paper‐based tasks. Results and Conclusions: Students who played GL showed significantly greater and faster development on in‐game measures of letter‐sound knowledge, rime unit recognition, and word recognition as compared to students who did not play GL. In addition, GL resulted in greater effects on these measures for students with stronger English literacy skills prior to the start of the intervention. No differences were found between groups on the oral and paper‐based tasks. Implications: GL was able to quickly and effectively teach critical sub‐skills for reading. However, a lack of effects on the out‐of‐game measures opens the door for further discussion on the successful implementation of such interventions. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic:India has an ongoing literacy crisis with many children failing to acquire functional literacy skills.Under‐resourced schools,outdated pedagogical methods, and a demand for English‐medium education are partially to blame.Globally, technology is being increasingly looked at to help improve student learning levels across all subject areas.There are a lack of studies examining the efficacy of various ed‐tech tools to improve literacy in the context of India.What this paper adds:The study aimed to test GraphoLearn English (GL), a mobile game designed to teach and practice early reading skills through phonics with first and second graders.Results showed that children who played GL outperformed those who did not play on critical literacy skills such as letter‐sound knowledge and word recognition.In addition, GL was more effective for those who had higher pre‐existing English literacy skills.However, improvements were only seen on measures assessed in the game and not on measures assessed orally or on paper.Implications for practice and/or policy:GL and other educational technologies can be extremely effective tools which allow for an individualized learning experience.However, it is important that for any educational game, learning moves beyond the game itself.Teachers are critical players in this process and must ensure that tech‐based instruction is integrated with teacher‐led instruction.Policy makers and school administration must ensure that teachers are adequately trained on when, with whom, and how to use such technologies before they are introduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Digital game‐based learning is gaining increased attention from both researchers and educators for improving mathematics instruction. However, the evidence for game‐based learning is mixed and research with rigorous research design and analyses are limited. Objective: Here, in a pre‐registered randomized controlled study, we investigated whether a fraction game designed collaboratively by educational experts and professional game developers may serve as a useful tool to enhance students' fraction knowledge. Methods: We assigned French fifth graders to either an experimental group who used the game (n = 110) or a control group (n = 78) who received traditional instruction on fractions. Fraction knowledge was assessed pre‐ and post‐intervention. Results: Results show that students in the active control group had superior overall fraction performance than students in the experimental group at the end of intervention. However, the game had a positive effect on decimal learning. We also found a positive relation between game performance and overall fraction knowledge scores at post‐test. Contribution: The study highlights the importance of game metrics as indicators of personalized assessment tools. Given the increased usage of games in learning mathematics and the equivocal results on the effectiveness of these games, our study also highlights the importance of pre‐registration and randomized controlled studies. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Digital game‐based learning (DGBL) is gaining popularity in mathematics teaching.DGBL shows potential for teaching difficult abstract concepts such as fractions.However, research evaluating DGBL for fractions is limited. What this paper adds: The study examines a fraction game designed by education experts and game designers.Students fraction knowledge is assessed using paper‐based test.Challenges associated with DGBL in the classroom are discussed in the paper. Implications for practice: The results will guide educators in designing effective fraction instruction in classroom.The study highlights the critical role of instructional support in DGBL for fractions.Game based metrics can be used to individualize instruction in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In scientific inquiry learning, students often have difficulties conducting hypothetical reasoning with multiple intertwined variables. Concept maps have a potential to facilitate complex thinking and reasoning. However, there is little investigation into the content of student‐constructed concept maps and its association with inquiry task performance. Objectives: This study explored students' concept mapping style and its association with task performance in computer‐based inquiry learning. Methods: An exploratory study was conducted with 80 Grade 11 students, who collaboratively constructed concept maps in a free style to support inquiry learning with a virtual ecosystem. Student‐constructed concept maps was analysed by firstly identifying different types of propositions formed in the maps and then determining the style of each concept map based on the dominant type of propositions in the map. Finally, the association between the concept map style and inquiry task performance was explored. Results and Conclusions: Two major concept map styles were identified: (1) knowledge‐oriented concept maps (KCMs) mainly representing problem‐related subject knowledge as a set of concepts and their relationships, and (2) problem‐oriented concept maps (PCMs) mainly representing problem situation as a sequence of changes and their causal relationships. Compared with those constructing KCMs, the students constructing PCMs formed higher‐quality propositions in their maps and performed better in hypothesising, reasoning, and drawing conclusions in the inquiry task. Implications: Besides KCMs, students in inquiry learning can be encouraged to construct PCMs to foster effective thinking and reasoning; that is, constructing a concept map to represent the problem situation as a sequence of changes and the causal relationships between the changes. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Concept maps (CMs) can facilitate complex thinking and reasoning in inquiry learning.There is little investigation into the content of student‐constructed CMs.It is unknown how CM content might associate with inquiry task performance. What this paper adds: Students constructed two major styles of CMs in computer‐based inquiry learning.The two styles of CMs are problem‐oriented and knowledge‐oriented CMs.Students constructing problem‐oriented CMs performed better in the inquiry task. Implications for practitioners: Analysing student‐constructed CMs helps understand student thinking in inquiry.Students are encouraged to build problem‐oriented CMs in inquiry learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Effective learning in computer programming courses has been a constant challenge for university teachers and has become a relevant competence for current professionals. The literature on gamification in learning presents mixed results, mainly due to problems in instructional design and inconsistency in gamification. Studies with positive empirical results on computer programming formative activities and showing under what conditions gamification is effective still need to be included. Objectives: This study aimed to quantify the effects of gamification techniques in software tools that support computer programming learning applied to data‐structures university students. The study focused on determining whether there are differences in learning when using gamification techniques in online exercising formative activities. The effects of gamification on learning objectives with diverse complexity are studied. Methods: The study was conducted on computer engineering university students following a pretest‐intervention‐posttest design. They were divided into control and experimental groups, where both used a bank of exercises in Moodle to support learning. The experimental group considered gamification techniques, including points, leaderboards, and badges. Results and Conclusions: Gamification techniques significantly outperformed in learning gains in exercising activities without gamification. Regarding learning complexity, increasing taxonomic complexity did not negatively affect gamification learning effects. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter?: Gamification has been explored as a strategy to enhance learning motivation in various educational contexts, including computer programmingLiterature shows mixed quantitative results on learning improvements under gamification.Few studies cover formative exercises, deal with computer programming tasks, or use a LMS like Moodle.Lack of literature exploring the conditions for effective gamification use, and involving learning objective complexity. What does this paper add to the existing body of research?: Quantifies the impact of gamification techniques on learning outcomes, specifically focusing on computer‐programming in university.Provides empirical evidence on gamification significantly improving learning gains compared to non‐gamified data‐structures exercisesGamification is effective in tasks of diverse levels of taxonomic complexity, with consistent effectiveness regardless of learning difficulty. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Gamification techniques, can be used in higher education to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes in computer programmingThe gamification information (e.g. points and ranking) do not require an automatic update, can be processed manually and published daily.It is effective to use gamification for learning tasks of medium‐high difficulty in Moodle on computer programming topics.It is key a thoughtful instructional design when applying gamification, ensuring alignment with learning objectives and task complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many instructors transitioned their courses from face‐to‐face environments to computer‐mediated learning environments (CMLEs) following the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) pandemic. However, little was known about how teleconferencing platforms and their corresponding functions affect student learning when the COVID‐19 pandemic began. Objectives: The aim of this study was to provide more clarity on the conditions through which online teleconferencing platforms influence student achievement. More specifically, this study investigated how displaying lecture‐relevant and lecture‐irrelevant messages in a chat box during a video lecture delivered via the Zoom teleconferencing platform affected student learning and note taking. Methods: Participants viewed the video lecture either with (relevant or irrelevant) or without messages appearing in the chat box of the Zoom window. Participants completed a learning test immediately following the lecture. Results and Conclusions: No difference regarding student achievement was observed between the three groups. However, results revealed that students in the relevant‐lecture messages group reported a higher extraneous cognitive load than the other groups even if they reported positive attitudes about the messages appearing on the chat box. Students in the lecture‐relevant group also recorded more notes during the lecture compared to the two other groups, but this result did not reach significance. This study extends previous research that investigated how messaging influences learning in classroom settings. Findings suggest that allowing relevant discussions is not the best strategy to promote learning in CMLEs as this information seems to compete with the other relevant information being presented during the ongoing lecture. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: In video lectures, the chat box has been identified as the function most often used to support students' learning.Responding to lecture‐relevant messages can enhance students' learning.However, it remains unknown how simply reading, but not responding to, lecture‐relevant and lecture‐irrelevant messages can affect learning and note taking. What this paper adds: In previous studies, researchers examined how messaging affects learning in a classroom setting, but not within a computer‐mediated lecture environment.The present study extends previous research that investigated how messaging influences learning in classroom settings.This study provides more clarity on the conditions through which online teleconferencing platforms affect student learning and note taking.Findings suggest that allowing relevant discussions is not the best strategy to promote learning in CMLEs as this information seems to compete with the other relevant information being presented during the ongoing lecture. Implications for practitioners: The features of video lectures are critical factors, as they influence students' learning and should therefore be taken into account when designing educational materials.Instructors should not allow students to engage in lecture‐relevant and irrelevant messaging and discussion during video lectures as it competes with the other relevant information being presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Despite the significant emphasis on self‐determination in special education and the crucial role of mobile learning, there is a notable absence of path modelling studies that explore the effect of self‐determination on the usage of mobile learning by students with special needs. Objectives: This study sought to investigate the intentions of mobile learning usage among students with special needs by proposing a model rooted in the technology acceptance model, complemented by extraneous constructs from self‐determination theory (competence, autonomy and relatedness). Methods: The data of the study was obtained online from 1298 special needs university students with eight different types of disabilities. Data were analysed with descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modelling and bootstrapping. Results and Conclusions: The proposed model explained 78.4% of ease of use, 85.2% of usefulness, and 76.5% of intention. 11 of the 12 hypotheses tested within the scope of the model were supported. All hypotheses examining the impacts of self‐determination theory constructs on ease of use, usefulness, and intention were validated (8 hypotheses), with the exception of the autonomy → intention relationship. Substantial empirical evidence has been acquired to support the role of the self‐determination theory in exploring the intention toward mobile learning among university students with special needs. Concurrently, a robust theoretical framework has been introduced to the field of special education to elucidate the acceptance and utilization of technology by university students with special needs. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Numerous studies have demonstrated the significance of mobile tools and mobile learning in the realm of special education.Self‐determination holds immense importance in fostering independence and social engagement by empowering individuals with special needs to gain confidence, assume control and accountability for their own choices and actions.Self‐determination theory underscores the importance of providing individuals with support for three fundamental psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—to foster healthy development. What this paper adds: To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study stands as a unique contribution within its field due to its distinctive characteristics. The model, supported by exceptionally successful outcomes and its ability to elucidate technology acceptance constructs at remarkably high levels, offers a robust theoretical framework for enabling students with special needs to engage effectively with mobile learning in both special and inclusive educational settings.Investigating how self‐determination theory enhances the explanatory power of the technology acceptance model in special education.Illuminating the significance of basic psychological needs in the adoption of mobile learning, employing advanced statistical methods with a substantial participant base, and delivering valuable insights to advance the utilization of mobile learning in special education. Implications for practice and/or policy: Special education settings should encourage students to take initiative, make choices, and exercise autonomy, and curriculum design should include opportunities for students to make choices.Making students part of the design processes and emphasizing usability through the prioritization of customizable, user‐friendly designs should be an inherent aspect of educational technology.Educators and support staff must have training and professional development opportunities to effectively use mobile learning tools and create inclusive learning environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Some studies have researched the correlation between flipped learning and cognitive learning outcomes; however, there is a paucity of research elaborating on the effects of flipped language learning on cognitive load (CL). Objectives: This study investigates the effects of using flipped learning designs (student‐led, teacher‐led and collaboration‐led) on learning outcomes and CL management during out‐of‐class activities versus during‐class activities. Methods: A mixed methods research was used to concurrently triangulate different strands of data on the effects of flipped learning designs on English as foreign language (EFL) learners' learning outcomes and CL. A total of 122 EFL learners were randomly assigned to either the control or experimental group and participated in the study. The interpretations were made based on running one‐way analysis of variance between four groups. Results and Conclusion: This study evidenced the efficacy of the interactive use of collaboration‐led flipped learning design over student‐led and teacher‐led designs for improving learning outcomes and lowering CL during computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) course. Pedagogically, CALL practitioners need to develop and integrate a well‐organized combination of student‐led and teacher‐led flipped learning activities for during‐class and out‐of‐class phases with respect to the CL and learning material complexity, while also considering the specific contexts and goals of their instructional settings. Theoretically, the results indicate the necessity of merging active learning and sociocultural theories into an instructional design to take advantage of the identified affordances of flipped language learning approach in terms of psychological effects (CL management) and learning effects (CALL outcomes). Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: The flipped language learning approach involves receiving online instruction outside the classroom and is a learner‐centered pedagogy. What this paper adds: This study contributes by triangulating different strands of data on the effects of flipped learning designs on learning outcomes and cognitive load.The findings highlight the effectiveness of collaboration‐led design for flipped language learning, facilitating engagement in both out‐of‐class and during‐class activities. Implications for practice: The findings emphasize the importance of designing and implementing instructional designs that align with emerging educational technologies.Teachers should consider the flexibility, fluency and novelty of the learning material when designing flipped learning activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Media comparison studies examining the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality in education have yielded inconclusive findings, leaving the question of its impact on learning compared to conventional media unanswered. To address this issue, our study employs a novel approach that combines media comparison with an investigation on the influence of broader educational context. Methods: In the experiment, 262 students from two distinct types of lower secondary schools—comprehensive school and multi‐year gymnasium (a selective academic school)—participated. The students received a lesson on topography and contour line interpretation, using either an immersive virtual environment or a PowerPoint slideshow. A transfer test was carried out before, immediately after, and 1 month after the lesson to measure knowledge application. Results: The impact of the media (immersive virtual reality vs. PowerPoint slideshow) on learning outcomes was found to be minimal, with no clear advantage of one over the other in any experimental condition. In contrast, a significant influence on learning gains was observed due to school type. Multi‐year gymnasium students consistently outperformed comprehensive school students in the pre‐test and demonstrated greater learning gains, regardless of the learning media. Conclusion: The present study employs an innovative approach by integrating a comparative analysis of different media types with an investigation into the impact of learner characteristics. By including students from distinct types of schools, the study provides insights into the differential effects of immersive virtual reality in varied educational contexts. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Media comparison studies typically assess the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality as a learning medium in comparison to other instructional methods in education.The findings of these studies differ markedly.Numerous factors impact learning outcomes in an immersive virtual environment. What this paper adds: Recommendation that research in the field should explore not only if but also when and how IVR learning is effective.Evidence that learning achievements may not be affected by the medium used.Evidence that the type of school can significantly influence learning gains.Evidence that cognitive dispositions, such as spatial abilities, can be another factor that influence learning outcomes. Implications for practice: A technology‐centred approach alone does not allow for a proper evaluation of the learning gain potential of IVR, learner characteristics and broader educational context should also be taken into account.IVR as a learning medium may not be appropriate for all students and every educational setting.To ensure reliable evaluation of learning gains, it is necessary to align the content and format of the intervention in both learning mediums as closely as possible.Measuring learning gains not only immediately after the intervention but also with a significant time delay can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virtual reality (VR) offers significant potential for hands‐on learning environments by providing immersive and visually stimulating experiences. Interacting with such environments can bring numerous benefits to learning, including enhanced engagement, knowledge construction, and higher‐order thinking. However, many current VR studies in hands‐on learning tend to utilise one‐way learning materials, limiting participants' ability to interact with and reflect on their actions and learning experiences. Moreover, these studies often neglect to assess learners' capacity to transfer their skills from VR learning to real‐world scenarios. Therefore, this study aims to investigate participants' engagement, learning outcomes, higher‐order thinking, and their ability to apply acquired skills in real‐world contexts. Method and Objective: Participants were immersed in a hands‐on learning environment in VR, where they received feedback and engaged in reflection during the learning process. This study recruited 68 university students to participate in the experiment, employing a quasi‐experimental design. Participants experienced learning units both with and without reflection on the feedback. The theme of these learning units was related to embedded systems, encompassing topics such as the assembly of embedded components and Python programming. The investigation aimed to assess whether reflection in VR could enhance cognitive levels, engagement, real‐world hands‐on tasks abilities, and higher‐order thinking. Results: The research results indicate that in the VR hands‐on learning environment, participants engage in reflection through the provided feedback, effectively enhancing their engagement, cognitive levels, and hands‐on task abilities. Simultaneously, it also successfully assists participants in developing problem‐solving skills and critical thinking in higher‐order thinking. Conclusions: Participants actively engaged in reflection on their own learning tasks and actions within the hands‐on learning environment, enabling them to develop a deeper understanding of the learning material and enhance their real‐world hands‐on tasks abilities, we encourage the integration of reflection strategies in VR learning environments for hands‐on learning, as they can yield positive benefits for learners. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Virtual reality learning environments can enhance students' cognitive levels.Higher‐order thinking has a significant impact on hands‐on learning.Reflection has an important influence on the cognitive process. What this paper adds: Providing reflection through feedback in a virtual reality environment increases learning engagement and promotes higher‐order thinking.Reflection in virtual reality enhances cognitive levels and practical abilities. Implications for practice and/or policy: We demonstrated the effectiveness of providing reflection through feedback in a VR hands‐on learning environment.Learners, through reflection in VR, enhance higher‐order thinking, engagement, cognitive levels, and practical abilities. What are the 1 or 2 major takeaways from the study: Providing reflection in VR learning environments used for training or hands‐on learning can effectively promote cognitive levels, engagement, higher‐order thinking abilities, and practical skills.Through VR reflection, we reveal the potential of cultivating higher‐order thinking through VR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Data literacy (DL) is vital for teachers, as it enables them to build on data and improve teaching and learning. Therefore, developing DL among pre‐service teachers is critical. Objectives: The purpose of this study is threefold: to evaluate whether a feedback visualisation of peer assessment‐based teaching approach (FVPA‐based teaching approach) can (1) promote pre‐service teachers' DL; (2) enhance their learning motivation; and (3) improve their cognitive load. Methods: The research was conducted based on a pre‐test‐post‐test control group quasi‐experimental design. With 20 participants in the experimental group and 21 in the control group, a total of 41 pre‐service teachers were included in the study. The pre‐service teachers in the experimental group adopted the FVPA‐based teaching approach, and those in the control group adopted the traditional peer assessment‐based learning approach. Results and Conclusions: The experimental group participants outperformed the control group participants in DL, learning motivation, and cognitive load. FVPA was conducive to helping pre‐service teachers critically interpret data, understand their teaching and learning issues, and improve self‐reflection. The findings indicate a reciprocal relationship between learning motivation and DL; improving the learning motivation of pre‐service teachers could promote their DL. Implications: This study contributes to current knowledge by providing empirical evidence on the benefits of an FVPA‐based teaching approach in improving pre‐service teachers' DL, motivation, and cognitive load. The study findings, limitations, and prospects for future research are discussed. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: Teacher data literacy has emerged as a crucial competency for the forthcoming generation of educators, gaining attention from education institutions globally.Peer assessment, a well‐established practice in pre‐service teacher education, has proven effective in enhancing the learning experience for disadvantaged students by fostering motivation and improving academic performance.Despite the acknowledged benefits of feedback visualisation in facilitating self‐reflection, motivation, and academic performance, creating meaningful visualisations remains a challenge for educators and learners. What this paper adds?: This study introduces feedback visualisation in peer assessment to enhance comprehension of feedback information among pre‐service teachers.Feedback visualisation augments the benefits derived from peer assessment, refining data literacy, improving learning motivation, and alleviating cognitive load among pre‐service educators.The analysis of data directly relevant to pre‐service teachers and the provision of timely feedback can motivate critical analysis and utilisation of data, facilitating the identification of pedagogical and learning challenges.The study explores intricate interactions among learning motivation, data literacy, and cognitive load within the context of peer assessment visual feedback. The implications of study findings for practitioners: We encourage teacher educators to implement peer assessment instruction grounded in visual feedback for a comprehensive understanding of learning outcomes, identification of pedagogical challenges, determination of causes, and evidence‐informed instructional decision‐making.Teacher educator should diversify strategies to augment the motivation of pre‐service teachers, cultivating their proactive engagement in data analysis, interpretation, and application to enhance overall data literacy.We recommend that teacher educators provide rich visual feedback or present complex data in a visually accessible format for pre‐service teachers who need additional assistance to mitigate cognitive load and facilitate successful learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The impact of digital gamified language learning on language achievement has been corroborated in the literature; however, its impact on language achievement, especially in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context needs further investigation. In addition, the related literature has not sufficiently confirmed the impact of digital gamified language learning on some psychological domains of EFL learning. Objectives: This study, therefore, employed a sequential explanatory mixed‐methods approach to explore the effects of digital gamified language learning using a mobile application (app) affordances on EFL learners' language achievement, foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and ideal second language (L2) self. Methods: To this end, 36 EFL learners were randomly divided into two groups; one group was randomly assigned to the digital class, including 19 EFL learners, and the other group was assigned to the non‐digital class, consisting of 17 EFL learners. The digital learners did the digital gamified language learning activities individually and interactively and received peer and instructor feedback, whilst the non‐digital learners did the same language learning activities in printed format and received peer and instructor feedback. A language achievement test, the FLE scale, and the ideal L2 self‐scale were used to collect the quantitative data and an individual semi‐structured interview was carried out to gather the qualitative data. Results and Conclusions: One‐way ANCOVA, used to analyse the quantitative data, revealed that the digital and non‐digital classes improved the EFL learners' language achievement, FLE, and ideal L2 self; however, the digital learners outperformed their non‐digital counterparts in all the measures. Thematic analysis, utilised to analyse the qualitative data, uncovered some themes about the digital learners' positive and negative attitudes and perceptions towards the digital gamified language learning activities, clarifying the quantitative findings. Implications: Pedagogical implications are discussed. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Digital gamification involves employing game‐supported activities to interact with other learners, improving their language learning.Several studies have been carried out focusing on the salient role of digital gamified language learning activities in improving learners' language learning.As elements of positive psychology, foreign language enjoyment and ideal L2 self can improve learners' enthusiasm and involvement in digital gamified language learning activities. What this paper adds: Digital gamification using a mobile app's gamified affordances develops English language learners' language achievement, foreign language enjoyment, and ideal L2 self.Digital gamification is more effective than non‐digital gamification in improving English language learners' language achievement, foreign language enjoyment and ideal L2 self.English language learners in digital classes hold positive attitudes and perceptions towards the effects of digital gamification on their language learning. Pedagogical implications: Digital gamified language learning activities can be an effective and engaging supplement to non‐digital classroom teaching, especially in English language contexts where learners may have limited opportunities for authentic language learning collaboration.English language learners can utilise digital gamified language learning affordances for language development, particularly for their collaborative language learning activities with other classmates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Mobile‐based micro‐learning has gained a lot of attention lately, especially for work‐based and corporate training. It combines features of mobile learning and micro‐learning to deliver small learning units and short‐term learning activities. The current study uses the lens of the Self‐Determination Theory of motivation and proposes a series of Mobile‐Based micro‐Learning and Assessment (MBmLA) homework activities to improve high school students' motivation and learning performance in science. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. One hundred and eight students of a senior‐level high school in Europe were randomly assigned into either a control condition (conventional paper‐based homework approach) or an experimental (MBmLA approach) condition. The study carried out for a period of 5 weeks. From the experimental results, it was found that, in comparison to the conventional paper‐based approach, the proposed MBmLA approach enhanced students' basic psychological needs of self‐perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness and improved students' exam performance in terms of factual knowledge. Moreover, students self‐reported greater learning satisfaction with the mobile‐based microassessment and micro‐learning homework tasks. Implications on educational practices as well as future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this current paper is to investigate the salient embodiment features in the empirical studies on technology‐enabled embodied learning environments (TEELEs), and to contribute a comprehensive conceptual framework to direct the understanding and the designing of TEELEs – to embody and how to embody. Method: In this thematic paper, we carefully selected and reviewed 28 empirical studies (peer‐reviewed journal articles published in the recent decade between 2010 and 2020) on TEELEs, and analyzed their salient features concerning embodiment. Results and Implications: Synthesizing the characteristics distilled from the selected studies, we propose the conceptual framework of embodied immersion, which consists of three major dimensions, namely, physical, sensory, and cognitive immersions. Eight factors – means of embodiment, amount of motoric movements, point of view, media effects, haptic effects, operational congruency, learning congruency, and personalization – contribute to these three dimensions, and are carefully articulated, discussed, and explicated. The discussions around the embodied immersion framework are rooted in the concepts of presence, immersion, and agency. We regard our framework as a trinity borrowing the ingredients from each of those three that will guide through the understanding and the designing of TEELEs. Lay Description: What is currently known?: Embodiment contributes a specific modality in learning;Embodied interactions can bring mixed learning effects to learners;Learning through embodiment is often enabled by technologies in recent years;Immersion, presence and agent are often referred to in understanding the features in learning through embodiment enabled by technology; however, a comprehensive framework is needed to unify such concepts and features together. The paper adds the following highlights to the current literature: Presenting a framework of embodied immersion – a unique and creative contribution to understanding the technology‐enabled embodied learning environments;Synthesizing and analyzing the state‐of‐the‐art research studies in the field;Reaching thematic conclusions based on abundant empirical evidences;Clarifying the relationships among salient concepts and features in embodied learning from existing studies. The implication of the study for practitioners: Serving as a reference to evaluate technology‐enabled embodied learning studies, and to guide the designs of such systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is a new technology that could motivate learners, but also could contain distracting elements that increase cognitive demands on learners. In contrast, learning with conventional media, such as a narrated slideshow could be less motivating, but also less distracting. Objectives: This experiment investigates: (1) in what situations executive function and working memory capacity play a role in learning in IVR and a slideshow lesson and (2) whether people learn science content better with IVR or with a narrated slideshow lesson. Method: Participants watched a lesson on ocean acidification either using a head‐mounted display IVR device or a pre‐recorded narrated slideshow lesson. A week later, they took a test on this material and completed tasks to assess executive function and working memory capacity. Results and Conclusion: On a post‐test, there was no difference between IVR and slideshow lessons, but there were differences in the role of executive function in learning with these two media. For students learning in IVR, executive function correlated significantly with post‐test scores, such that learners with stronger executive function did better on the posttest than those with weaker executive function, while for students learning with a slideshow lesson, executive function and working memory capacity did not correlate significantly with posttest scores. This research indicates that it is important to understand how a learner's attentional controls impact their understanding when using IVR for learning. Lay Description: What is already know about this topic: Immersive virtual reality increases demands on cognition for learners.Immersive virtual reality for learning has inconsistent effects in prior research.Executive function and working memory capacity are important components in processing material while learning. What this paper adds: Research focused on the role individual differences play in learning with technology.Using common cognitive assessments to understand the process of learning better. Implications for practice and/or policy: Executive function predicted test score for an immersive virtual reality lesson.Use of immersive technology needs to take into account executive function to reduce potential inequity in learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Guided gaze is the instructor's gaze towards teaching materials to guide students' attention, and it plays a vital role in enhancing video‐based education. The duration of guided gaze, indicating how long instructors focus on teaching materials, varies based on the lecture design. Nevertheless, the impact of varying durations of guided gaze, especially concerning students' prior knowledge, remains inadequately understood. Objectives: This study investigates the influence of the instructor's guided gaze duration and students' prior knowledge on learning performance and affective experiences in video lectures. Methods: 145 fifth‐grade students participated and were divided into high and low prior knowledge groups based on a pre‐test. Within each group, students were randomly assigned to view one of three video lectures with different guided gaze durations (high vs. medium vs. low). Learning performance and affective experiences (learning experience, satisfaction, and emotions) were measured as dependent variables. Results and Conclusion: The results revealed that low guided gaze duration significantly improves learning performance for students with low prior knowledge. Conversely, high guided gaze duration negatively impacts learning experience, satisfaction, and positive emotions. Additionally, students with high prior knowledge reported higher learning experience and satisfaction. These findings highlight the interaction between guided gaze duration and prior knowledge in students' learning performance. Implications: Our findings provide valuable implications for the design of guided gaze duration in video lectures based on students' prior knowledge. By adjusting guided gaze duration appropriately, instructors can optimise students' learning performance and affective experiences. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Guided gaze is the instructor's gaze on teaching materials, guiding students' attention to relevant information.Guided gaze duration measures the amount of time instructors spend looking at teaching materials.Prior knowledge can modulate the impact of instructors' guidance on students' learning performance.It remains unclear whether guided gaze duration affects the learning outcomes of students with varied prior knowledge. What this paper adds: Guided gaze duration is divided into three levels (high, medium, and low), indicating the percentage of time the instructor looks at teaching materials.High guided gaze duration has negative effects on students' learning experience, satisfaction, and positive emotions.Students with high prior knowledge have higher learning performance, experience, and satisfaction.Low guided gaze duration improves learning performance for students with low prior knowledge. Implications for practice and/or policy: Instructors should use low guided gaze duration for students with low prior knowledge.Instructors should aim to reduce the use of high guided gaze duration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Limited research on the effectiveness of additional online and face‐to‐face practise opportunities for promoting active learning among Chinese EFL learners in higher education. Current understanding of self‐regulated and collaborative learning theories in educational contexts. Objectives: To establish the efficacy of interactive online and face‐to‐face practise opportunities for enhancing active learning among Chinese EFL learners. Methods: Employed mixed methods research to assess the impact of different types of practise opportunities on 116 EFL learners. Utilised methodological triangulation of QUAN + QUAL data and one‐way ANOVA for interpretation. Results and conclusions: The study demonstrated the effectiveness of integrating online and face‐to‐face practise opportunities to enhance active learning. Empirical evidence supports the pedagogical and theoretical benefits of these opportunities for promoting active learning among EFL learners. Lay Summary: What is currently known about this topic: Limited scholarly exploration of supplementary practise opportunities for active learning among Chinese EFL learnersExisting understanding of self‐regulated and collaborative learning theories in educational contexts What does this paper add: Establishes the effectiveness of interactive online and face‐to‐face practise opportunities for promoting active learningProvides empirical evidence supporting the integration of these opportunities to enhance active learning Implications for practise/or policy: Advocates for the combined use of online and face‐to‐face practise opportunities to enrich engagement, problem‐solving, feedback, and motivation among EFL learnersSuggests the development of instructional frameworks based on self‐regulated and collaborative learning theories for enhanced CALL courses [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Learning analytics (LA) research often aggregates learning process data to extract measurements indicating constructs of interest. However, the warranty that such aggregation will produce reliable measurements has not been explicitly examined. The reliability evidence of aggregate measurements has rarely been reported, leaving an implicit assumption that such measurements are free of errors. Objectives: This study addresses these gaps by investigating the psychometric pros and cons of aggregate measurements. Methods: This study proposes a framework for aggregating process data, which includes the conditions where aggregation is appropriate, and a guideline for selecting the proper reliability evidence and the computing procedure. We support and demonstrate the framework by analysing undergraduates' academic procrastination and programming proficiency in an introductory computer science course. Results and Conclusion: Aggregation over a period is acceptable and may improve measurement reliability only if the construct of interest is stable during the period. Otherwise, aggregation may mask meaningful changes in behaviours and should be avoided. While selecting the type of reliability evidence, a critical question is whether process data can be regarded as repeated measurements. Another question is whether the lengths of processes are unequal and individual events are unreliable. If the answer to the second question is no, segmenting each process into a fixed number of bins assists in computing the reliability coefficient. Major Takeaways: The proposed framework can be a general guideline for aggregating process data in LA research. Researchers should check and report the reliability evidence for aggregate measurements before the ensuing interpretation. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topic: Aggregating learning process data is common in learning analytics.The psychometric pros and cons of aggregating process data are rarely examined. What this paper adds: If the construct of interest is stable during a period, aggregation over this period is desirable.Aggregation over a long period masks meaningful changes in learning behaviours.A guideline for choosing proper reliability coefficients for aggregate measurements is proposed.Methods for computing reliability estimates when processes vary in length are provided. Implications for practice: Report reliability evidence for aggregate measurements for the sake of psychometric rigour.A short period causes unreliable action‐related indicators in learning analytics dashboards.A long period causes inaccurate indicators of learners' current state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Introducing new technologies in education sparks debates, disrupting traditional practices, and requiring teacher adaptation. ChatGPT is an example. Research explores its benefits and concerns in education, with recommendations for classroom use. Nevertheless, limited evidence supports ChatGPT as a tool for supporting English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students' research competency. Moreover, while the literature primarily focuses on the perspectives of scholars and teachers, it is essential to incorporate students' viewpoints in order to maximize the potential of this technology. Objectives: The present study investigated EFL undergraduates' perceptions and practices of ChatGPT as a tool for promoting their research competency. Additionally, the study examined the potential influence of metacognitive awareness (MA) levels in this context. Methods: The study utilized a mixed‐method research design, collecting quantitative and qualitative data from 27 EFL undergraduates (12 with low MA and 15 with high MA) over one semester. Data sources included a self‐report questionnaire, self‐study log, and semi‐structured interviews. Results and conclusions: Quantitative analysis showed significant differences between low and high MA groups in their perceptions of ChatGPT (U = 37.500, Z = 2.570). Regression analysis revealed a positive correlation between MA scores and students' perceptions and practices of ChatGPT. Qualitative analysis revealed diverse perceptions and practices of ChatGPT between the high MA and low MA groups, showcasing behaviours ranging from replication to using ChatGPT as a thought‐stimulating and supportive tool, accessing supplementary information, and seeking guidance. Key factors for effective ChatGPT use included prompt formulation, systematic thinking, self‐regulation strategies, and trust in AI. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topic: Research competency and metacognitive awareness are important for EFL undergraduates.Technology has been explored for promoting research competency.ChatGPT is used as a learning tool in EFL instruction contexts. What does this paper add: It provides a deeper understanding of the practical application of AI tools like ChatGPT for developing research competency among EFL students.It enhances understanding of metacognition's role in successful learning in digital environments by exploring MA's impact on using ChatGPT for research purposes. Implications for practice/policy: Provide explicit instructions and guidelines for EFL students to effectively use ChatGPT for research competency, emphasizing clear prompt design and fostering responsible use through critical thinking and awareness of biases and limitations.Enhance EFL students' metacognitive awareness through scaffolding, explicit instruction, and activities.Implement assessments and monitoring mechanisms to track metacognitive development and guide instructional interventions.Offer professional development opportunities for EFL teachers to enhance their understanding and skills in integrating AI tools into research instruction and other EFL aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In a context where synchronous online teaching has become a new trend of instruction for online education due to the COVID‐19 pandemic, it is valuable and insightful to examine what factors contribute to teachers' satisfaction with synchronous online teaching. Objective: Informed by the technology acceptance model (TAM), this study investigated English‐as‐a‐foreign‐language (EFL) university teachers' synchronous online teaching satisfaction in China from social (i.e., subjective norms), institutional (i.e., facilitating conditions), and individual (i.e., self‐efficacy, attitudes toward use, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use) levels during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Methods: A total of 250 in‐service EFL university teachers participated in this study. An online questionnaire was adaptively developed to measure teachers' perceptions of and satisfaction with synchronous online teaching. The structural equation modelling (i.e., path analyses) was performed to find out a model that can best represent EFL university teachers' synchronous online teaching satisfaction. Results and Conclusion: The results showed that facilitating conditions, self‐efficacy, attitudes toward use, and perceived usefulness are direct contributors to EFL university teachers' satisfaction with synchronous online teaching. Whereas, perceived ease of use, self‐efficacy, and subjective norms are indirect contributors through the mediation of attitudes toward use. Moreover, different from previous TAM research, facilitating conditions have been found to be the most significant direct factor positively contributing to satisfaction. The findings of this study are expected to shed light on how to enhance teachers' synchronous online teaching satisfaction. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: The technology acceptance model (TAM) has been frequently adopted to examine teachers' acceptance of technology in various contexts over the last two decades.The TAM model identifies three key factors that contribute to people's intention of technology use: perceived usefulness, perceived ease of, and attitudes toward technology use.Although the TAM model has been extensively examined in various technology‐supported teaching contexts, there has been a lack of focus on livestream technology‐supported synchronous online teaching. What the paper adds: EFL university teachers' synchronous online teaching satisfaction during the COVID‐19 in China.Teachers' satisfaction with synchronous online teaching is a joint interplay of individual (i.e., self‐efficacy, attitudes toward use, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use), institutional (i.e., facilitating conditions), and social (i.e., subjective norms) factors.Facilitating conditions, self‐efficacy, attitudes toward use, and perceived usefulness are direct contributors, while perceived ease of use, self‐efficacy, and subjective norms are indirect contributors to teachers' synchronous online teaching satisfaction through the mediation of attitudes toward use.Different from previous TAM research, facilitating conditions have been found to be the most significant direct factor positively contributing to satisfaction. Implications for practice and/or policy: This study offers a diagnostic measure for schools and universities to understand the status quo of their teachers' perceptions of and satisfaction with synchronous online teaching.Universities are advised to provide teachers with readily accessible support and training to enhance their self‐efficacy for synchronous online teaching so that their satisfaction with synchronous online teaching can be strengthened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study: The effects of the flipped classroom (FC) on students' academic performance remain ambiguous, and the use of pre‐class videos may be one of the main factors hindering students' progress. A software package called GeoGebra has been proposed as a substitute for pre‐class videos to aid students' learning. Objective: This study investigates the effect of the FC using GeoGebra (FCG) on mathematical performance and memory among senior secondary students. Methods: One hundred and sixty students of a senior high school in China were selected. A quasi‐experimental design was implemented in which the classes were split into the intervention group (FCG), control group A (FCV) and control group B (TL) by random assignment. Pretest, Post‐test 1 and Post‐test 2 were introduced. Results and Conclusion: The results indicate that both the FCG and the FC with pre‐class videos (FCV) were more effective than traditional lectures in enhancing students' academic test scores, and that the effect of the FCG was comparable to its video counterpart, F(2, 136) = 3.752, ρ = 0.026, η2 = 0.052. Although their effects were similar, the qualitative results revealed some hidden benefits associated with the replacement of pre‐class video with GeoGebra. Furthermore, although they were equally effective in promoting students' performance in the short‐term, the long‐term effects on academic performance of both forms of FC were non‐significant when compared with traditional lectures. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Flipped classroom is an effective strategy in teaching mathematics.Among those challenges, video may be one of the main factors hindering the effect of flipped classroom. What this paper adds: GeoGebra could be an effective alternative to video.Effect between the flipped classroom using GeoGebra and the flipped classroom using video were similar.Both the flipped classroom with GeoGebra and the flipped classroom with videos were more effective than traditional lectures. Implications for practice and/or policy: Students' short‐term performance could be enhanced by visualisation provided by flipped classroom.To enhance students' long‐term performance, an appropriate amount of homework is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Education is, after gaming, the second largest sector embracing augmented reality (AR) at an accelerated pace, yet studies on AR's potential as an efficient learning environment had mixed results. Objectives: This study's primary objective is to test students' interaction with graphical 3D elements in AR and its impact on information retention. The second objective is to compare information retention from AR engagement with information retention from exposure to identical 3D content delivered via instructional video. Finally, the third objective explores students' perceptions of AR as a learning environment. Methods: Sixty‐five college students participated in a two‐arm experiment followed by semi‐structured interviews. Results and Conclusion: AR can efficiently deliver a meaningful learning experience and promotes information retention. Nevertheless, AR's interactive features and novelty may distract learners while they engage with the virtual environment. Objective data obtained through eye tracking and video monitoring showed similar levels of engagement with a 3D model for both environments. While both AR and video groups showed significant knowledge gain from pre to post‐intervention, the video format was overall significantly more effective than AR in increasing topic‐related information retention. However, participants preferred the AR learning environment significantly more than the video. Takeaways: Although effective, AR is still a distracting instructional environment. Designing learning experiences tailored explicitly for AR environments requires additional research to ensure its successful deployment as a learning tool. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Education is the second‐fastest growing sector to adopt and experiment with augmented reality (AR).Hardware and software tools to create AR environments have reached the consumer level.The advantage of immersing learners in dedicated virtual environments seems obvious.Research has had mixed results in validating AR as a proper learning environment. What this paper adds: AR is a viable environment which supports information retention.For many students, the medium's novelty promotes engagement with the content.Students prefer AR to video lectures, but it may distract them from learning.Regarding information retention, video lectures do better than AR. The implications of study findings for practitioners: Learning experiences in AR should be reserved for some specific topics and designed purposedly.Progressive exposure of learners to AR environments may produce habituation and decrease distraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Little is known about the effectiveness of instructors when presenting content in videos alone. In recent years, researchers have increasingly begun to explore the effects of instructors' social cues (e.g., eye gaze, body orientation, etc.) on learning. However, previous studies exploring the effects of eye gaze have confounded the role of body orientation, while studies exploring body orientation have confounded the role of eye gaze. Objectives: To explore the role of direct gaze and body orientation in learning with instructional videos, absent an instructional screen, in a less confounded manner. Methods: A total of 63 subjects were presented select concepts regarding schizophrenia. Eye‐tracking technology combined with current theories of parasocial interaction and social agency was used to explore different social cues that affect learning performance. Students were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: frontal body + direct gaze group (FD group), frontal body + no direct gaze group (FND group), and lateral body + no direct gaze group (LND group). Result and Conclusions: Direct gaze facilitated students' immediate retention and transfer scores, reduced learners' extraneous cognitive load, and guided students' attention to the instructor. However, counter to our expectations, parasocial interaction did not affect social cues. Implications: In both online and offline classes, instruction is expected to be enhanced by focusing on the camera to the extent possible, particularly when instructional screens are absent. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: In recent years, how instructors' social cues (eye gaze, body orientation, gestures, etc.) can improve video learning has aroused widespread concern.Instructors' eye gaze and body orientation can increase society and improve learning in the online learning environment.The empirical research confounds the role of eye gaze and body orientation on video learning when only the instructors are present. What this paper adds: When only the instructor is present in the video, instructor's direct gaze can foster learner's learning outcome in the instructional video.When only the instructor is present in the video, instructor's direct gaze can draw the learner's attention to the instructor's face.When only the instructor is present in the video, instructor's direct gaze can reduce learner's extraneous cognitive load. Implications for practice and/or policy: In online teaching, educators should consider looking at the camera as much as possible, especially when there are no instructional screens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Digital texts are progressively becoming the medium of learning for students, but research has indicated that students tend to process information more superficially while reading on screen. It is therefore relevant to examine what strategies can support digital text comprehension. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the effects of highlighting—both learner generated and experimenter provided—when reading digitally. Methods: University students (N = 170) were randomly assigned to the condition of learner‐generated highlighting, experimenter‐provided highlighting, or control. Reading outcomes were measured as literal and inferential text comprehension, transfer of knowledge, and metacognitive calibration of comprehension performance at immediate and delayed post‐tests. Individual differences in prior knowledge, cognitive reflection, and reading self‐efficacy were taken into account. The quality of the information highlighted by students in the condition of active highlighting was also measured. Results: From linear mixed‐effects models, the main effect of condition did not emerge for any of the outcomes. However, an interactive effect of condition and cognitive reflection emerged for literal text comprehension that favoured readers in the condition of experimenter‐provided highlighting with higher ability to resist automatic thinking. Inferential text comprehension, transfer of knowledge, and calibration of performance were only predicted by cognitive reflection or reading self‐efficacy. Finally, the quality of information highlighted significantly contributed to students' literal text comprehension and transfer of knowledge in the learner‐generated highlighting condition. Takeaways: Active highlighting is not effective per se during digital reading. The "amplification" effect of already highlighted text and higher cognitive reflection suggests that readers who are more able to resist automatic thinking may also invest more effort in the task, taking more advantage of the provided support. Even if active highlighting may not be effective per se compared to other reading conditions, what students highlight contributes to literal text comprehension and their learning from text. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Reading on a screen to learn new content for academic assignments is a typical learning activity for todays' students.For digital reading students tend to adopt a more superficial approach compared to traditional reading.Reading strategies can help readers to comprehend complex digital texts.Highlighting is a technically simple strategy to use for digital reading, which can at least support the selection of relevant information for text comprehension. What this paper adds: When considering digital reading neither learner‐generated highlighting nor experimenter‐provided highlighting is effective by itself.Experimenter‐provided highlighting is more effective for literal text comprehension than learner‐generated highlighting when combined with readers' ability to cognitively reflect and resist more automatic responses.The individual differences of cognitive reflection and reading self‐efficacy predicted inferential text comprehension and transfer of knowledge.Reading self‐efficacy also predicted readers' metacognitive calibration of comprehension performance (accuracy of self‐judgements of comprehension performance). The implications of study findings for practitioners: The effective use of highlighting for text comprehension probably requires some explicit instruction and practice in learning devices.The potential benefits of either learner‐generated highlighting or experimenter‐provided highlighting should be considered in relation to cognitive and motivational individual differences.It is important to create or refine readers' awareness that the quality of the information they highlight matters as it is associated with their text literal text comprehension and transfer of knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Tele‐collaborative projects serve as invaluable platforms for students from diverse countries to engage in cross‐cultural communication and exchange cultural knowledge. These projects offer immense benefits in terms of fostering intercultural competence among participants. However, one challenge arises when participants engage in spoken communication rather than written. Those who may not share a common first language often rely on a lingua franca such as English for intercultural communication. In such spoken exchanges, varying levels of language proficiency can lead to communication errors that hinder the intercultural learning process and impede the development of intercultural competence in their fellow participants. Objectives: In the present trial study, our primary objective was to tackle the language‐related challenge associated with spoken communication head‐on. Our focus centred on addressing the discrepancies arising in spoken communication, and we aimed to mitigate these discrepancies by utilizing speech‐enabled corrective feedback technology. Methods: In a tele‐collaborative project involving 28 graduate students from the People's Republic of China and Republic of Kazakhstan, the participants engaged in spoken communication and cultural exchange in English via the internet. Given the emphasis on spoken communication and the recognition that English was not their first language, we implemented a speech‐enabled corrective feedback (SECF) technology to ensure effective communication in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and word choice. The SECF technology detected and provided instant feedback on any speech mistakes, enabling participants to make corrections accordingly. The main aim of our study was to explore the potential benefits of integrating SECF technology into a tele‐collaborative project for the development of participants' intercultural competence. Additionally, we sought to gather insights into the students' perceptions of the SECF support. Results and Conclusions: The results of our study revealed significant improvements in the participants' intercultural competence across dimensions such as knowledge, skills, attitude, and awareness. Furthermore, the participants expressed positive perceptions of the SECF technology. Drawing from our findings, we offer valuable implications and recommendations for educators and researchers in the field, enhancing their understanding of the role of SECF technology in supporting intercultural competence development in tele‐collaborative settings. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Tele‐collaborative projects are widely utilized to enhance intercultural competence.Low language proficiency of participants often poses a significant challenge in tele‐collaborative projects. What this paper adds: The present study addressed the language barrier by incorporating speech‐enabled corrective feedback (SECF) technology to support our tele‐collaborative project.The study explored how our tele‐collaborative project, supported by SECF, facilitated the development of intercultural competence. The implications of study findings for practitioners: Scholars and practitioners should consider implementing SECF technology to address language‐related barriers in tele‐collaborative projects.Guidelines based on our study can be utilized to design tele‐collaborative projects with SECF support.Training on technology and constant support needs to be provided to participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Study: As flipped learning is a flexible pedagogical methodology to tailor students' needs and maximize the learning effects, this study integrated peer learning with MosoTeach‐supported flipped mode in an undergraduate blended EFL course. MosoTeach is a popular online learning platform in China with a variety of learning resources. Objectives: The study aimed to test the impact of MosoTeach flipped learning (MTFL) mode on undergraduate EFL students' perceived motivation, participation, feedback, and test performance. Methods: A quasi‐experimental design was carried out in Z university during the spring semester of 2020, with the experimental group (n = 34) adopting the MTFL model and a control group (n = 33) the non‐flipped mode. Results and Conclusions: The independent t‐test results showed that the experimental MTFL group outperformed the control group in post‐test scores, and a positive correlation was found in the relationship between the experimental MTFL group's post‐test scores and MosoTeach learning experience points (LEPs). Moreover, the course perception questionnaire survey indicated a higher level of students' perceived motivation, participation, and feedback in the experimental MTFL group, which corresponded to the results of the content analysis of students' responses to open‐ended questions and reflective reports. But students in both groups experienced challenges such as isolation, procrastination and technological anxiety. Lay Description: What is currently known about this topicFlipped language learning is mostly reported to be effective in improving EFL learning.Peer learning is mostly reported to be effective in improving EFL learning.MosoTeach was investigated in English learning contexts before, but without experimental design. What this paper addsMosoTeach proved as a valid online learning platform in flipped language learning, and the learning experience points (LEPs) on MosoTeach could predict students' exam performance.Students in the experimental group (MosoTeach‐supported flipped) had better exam performance and a higher level of motivation, participation and feedback.Students in both groups experienced isolation, procrastination and technological anxiety. Implications for practice:Peer discussion boards in MosoTeach provide learning support effectively for students in pre‐class learning.Group projects and peer assessment in MosoTeach integrate pre‐class peer discussion into in‐class interaction successfully.MosoTeach provides equal opportunity for every student in the large‐size Chinese English classes, thus contributing to the equity of in‐class peer interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Collaboration is a crucial concept in learning and has the potential to foster learning. However, the fact that collaborative groups act with a common understanding in a common task brings many difficulties. Therefore, there is a need for group regulation and guidance to support effective group regulation in collaborative learning. On the other hand, the focus should be on the effect of group regulation guidance intervention on the improvement of both individual and group performance, modes of motivational regulation strategies, and the progression of group metacognition. Objectives: In this study, group regulation guidance approaches were developed to support the collaborative learning of Computer Science university students. The developed group regulation guidance approach consists of feedback and a feedforward mechanism. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of these approaches on academic performance, group regulation performance perception, self‐, co‐, and socially shared regulation of intrinsic motivation, and group metacognition levels. Methods: The study was patterned with a quasi‐experimental design. 65 students participated in the study, and various scales were used to collect data. Data were analysed using paired sample t‐tests, analysis of covariance, and multivariate analysis of covariance. Results and Conclusion: According to the research results, academic achievement showed an increase in the experimental groups after the intervention compared with the pre‐intervention. The group in which the feedforward‐supported regulation guidance approach was used showed better learning success. In the group using the feedback‐supported regulation guidance approach, better group regulation, motivational regulation strategies, and group metacognition scores were obtained. Modes of motivational regulation strategies and group metacognition scores differed according to the experimental groups. Implications: While the results provide important clues for teachers and instructional designers, the developed approaches can be used as a framework for different fields. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Collaboration has the potential to foster learning.There are many obstacles for collaborative groups to act with a common understanding in a common task.Collaborative learning requires group regulation and guidance to support effective group regulation. What this paper adds: Academic achievement increased in the experimental groups after the intervention.Feedforward‐based group regulation guidance approach provides better learning success.Feedback‐based group regulation guidance approach provides better group regulation and metacognition.Modes of motivational regulation and group metacognition differ according to the groups. Implications for practice and/or policy: Teachers and instructional designers should not only focus on feedback‐based regulation processes, but also consider feedforward processes to ensure academic performance.Feedback and feedforward‐based regulation guidance approach can help computer science students, who gain first‐hand experiences through active participation, to establish more effective social interaction in their professional projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Readability metrics provide us with an objective and efficient way to assess the quality of educational texts. We can use the readability measures for finding assessment items that are difficult to read for a given grade level. Hard‐to‐read math word problems can put some students at a disadvantage if they are behind in their literacy learning. Despite their math abilities, these students can perform poorly on difficult‐to‐read word problems because of their poor reading skills. Less readable math tests can create equity issues for students who are relatively new to the language of assessment. Less readable test items can also affect the assessment's construct validity by partially measuring reading comprehension. Objectives: This study shows how large language models help us improve the readability of math assessment items. Methods: We analysed 250 test items from grades 3 to 5 of EngageNY, an open‐source curriculum. We used the GPT‐3 AI system to simplify the text of these math word problems. We used text prompts and the few‐shot learning method for the simplification task. Results and Conclusions: On average, GPT‐3 AI produced output passages that showed improvements in readability metrics, but the outputs had a large amount of noise and were often unrelated to the input. We used thresholds over text similarity metrics and changes in readability measures to filter out the noise. We found meaningful simplifications that can be given to item authors as suggestions for improvement. Takeaways: GPT‐3 AI is capable of simplifying hard‐to‐read math word problems. The model generates noisy simplifications using text prompts or few‐shot learning methods. The noise can be filtered using text similarity and readability measures. The meaningful simplifications AI produces are sound but not ready to be used as a direct replacement for the original items. To improve test quality, simplifications can be suggested to item authors at the time of digital question authoring. Lay Description: What is Known About the Subject: Difficult to read math assessment items cause measurement and equity issuesReadability of math word problems negatively correlated with outcomes What Our Paper Adds: GPT‐3 AI system is capable to simplify math word problemsPrompt‐based and few‐shot learning‐based approaches are able to create meaningful simplifications, but with a very low accuracy rateText similarity and readability measures can be used to filter out noisy outputs and discover interesting simplifications What are the Implications for Practitioners: GPT‐3 AI is capable of generating relevant math world problem simplificationsSimplified text can be used as suggestions to question authors during the digital item authoring process [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although conventional writing procedures are still the dominant instructional procedures in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts, instructors are still struggling with time limitations to improve EFL students writing skills properly. Additionally, EFL students are not engaged in the writing process since they lack the required information about the writing tasks. Objectives: The present study, therefore, applied a sequential explanatory mixed‐methods approach to explore the impact of a flipped writing classroom on EFL students' writing skills (i.e. writing content, writing organization, and language use) and writing motivation on the one hand and possibly recommend a better instructional procedure for students' writing skills and writing motivation in EFL context on the other hand. Methods: To this aim, two intact classes were selected as the participants of the study. The two classes were randomly assigned to a flipped classroom with 27 EFL students and a non‐flipped classroom with 24 EFL students. The non‐flipped classroom was instructed through conventional writing instruction over 16 sessions whereas the flipped classroom was taught with the same content in a flipped writing mode in 10 sessions. Two timed writing tasks, a writing motivation scale, and an individual semi‐structured interview were used to gather the required data. Results and Conclusions: The findings indicated that the flipped writing classroom outperformed the non‐flipped writing classroom in improving the EFL students' writing performance, writing organization, language use, and writing motivation; however, no significant differences were found between the two groups' writing content. Moreover, the data analysis from the individual semi‐structured interview indicated that the flipped students had positive attitudes and perceptions towards the flipped writing classroom which further supported the quantitative findings. Implications: Practical implications for collaborative writing instruction using video clips and other electronic materials are suggested. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: In a flipped classroom model, English language students can view video clips prior to class time in order to use the class time for doing academic exercises and projects in a collaborative manner.As in student‐centred learning environments, a flipped classroom engages English language students in more active learning processes, encourages them to enquire about the video lectures, and tests and evaluates their skills in applying knowledge.Individual differences, such as motivational variables and affective factors disjointedly or conjointly affect writing processes, especially in English language contexts. What this paper adds: Flipping an English language collaborative writing course improves English language students' writing performance, writing organization, language use, and writing motivation.Flipped classroom is more effective than non‐flipped classroom in improving English language students' writing performance, writing organisation, language use, and writing motivation.Flipped English language students hold positive attitudes and perceptions towards flipped collaborative writing classroom. Pedagogical implications: English language instructors are recommended to design a flipped classroom to provide English language students with video clips before class time, so students can have more collaborative and evaluative writing activities during the class time.English language students can have and receive more peer/instructor writing mediations on the writing tasks and make better use of class time (based on the video clips) and develop their writing performance accordingly.By designing a flipped classroom, English language students can enhance their writing motivation, and also, they properly cover the required materials in a shorter time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virtual reality (VR) is considered a promising approach to support learning. An instructional design is essential to optimize cognitive processes. Studies show that VR has unique instructional and pedagogical requirements. Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness and applicability of the modality principle, which was previously validated in 2D classic multimedia, for learning with VR. The modality principle states that multimedia information presented as spoken narration is superior to on‐screen text. Methods: A prospective experimental study with two compared conditions of instruction: VR‐based learning guided by on‐screen text (n = 34) versus spoken narration (n = 28). Students' cognitive learning experiences were captured by eye‐tracking and electrodermal activity (EDA). In addition, students' knowledge was evaluated using a pre–post knowledge test. Results and Conclusions: Overall, there was no significant difference in knowledge retention between the participants who learned with on‐screen text compared to spoken narration. However, results from the eye‐tracking analysis showed that students who learned with the on‐screen text devoted longer visual attention toward important learning activity areas of interest, suggesting a better ability to discern between relevant and irrelevant information. Conversely, students who learned with the spoken narration expressed significantly more EDA peak responses, proposing a higher cognitive load. Implications: This study outlines that while learning with VR was effective, the modality principle might not apply to learning with VR. Moreover, the analysis of the learning process suggests even an inverse effect, favouring the provision of instructional scaffolds as on‐screen text. Future research should evaluate this effect on long‐term knowledge retention. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: VR can increase learners' engagement and impact their cognitive processing.VR has different instructional requirements than classic multimedia learning material.The modality principle states that audio‐visual is superior to visual‐only information. What this paper adds?: This study evaluated the impact of the modality design principle to scaffolded learning with VR.In terms of achievements learning with textual and audio instruction was comparable.Eye‐tracking analysis showed that learning with on‐screen text was characterized by longer visual attention to the important learning objects.Learning with the auditory narration was associated with a higher cognitive load as measured by EDA and more performance errors.In both study conditions, students tended to focus more on the less important information in the learning activity. Implications of the study's findings for practitioners: VR‐based simulations are effective to support learning and knowledge gaining.The modality principle is not fully applicable to support learning in VR‐based learning environments.Instructional design should take into consideration that novices often notice the non‐salient information in VR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Mobile‐assisted language learning (MALL) has long been advocated to promote students' language study outcomes. However, little is known about how using instant messaging applications (an example of MALL) affect student motivation, language anxiety, and actual achievement. Objectives: To help close this gap, we have conducted a quasi‐experimental study, in which we have used self‐determination theory to test a mediational process model, in an effort to understand the psychological mechanisms that underlie the effect of instant messaging applications on student outcomes. Methods: Two groups of Saudi undergraduate students (N = 447) were recruited to participate in the study. Participants under the experimental condition were invited to engage in language‐related tasks with their teacher outside of class through the WhatsApp application, whereas participants under the control condition received standard teaching. We applied partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS‐SEM) to test our model. Results and Conclusions: The results of the PLS‐SEM showed that the total effects of using instant messaging applications on autonomous motivation and L2 achievement were significant but that language anxiety was influenced only indirectly and negatively through language achievement. Also, the PLS‐SEM showed that our results have strong predcitive power indicating support for external validity. Implications: Our results show that instant messaging applications can be used to facilitate interest and achievement and to decrease anxiety. Furthermore, we are contributing to L2 methodological literature by using applications of PLS‐SEM in experimental designs that can help researchers and practitioners of motivational processes. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Using WhatsApp and more broadly instant messaging applications are conceived to be motivating in language teaching contextStudies indicate students are inclined toward using these applications in language learningResearch shows that using WhatsApp is easy to apply for language teaching purposes What this paper adds: The study examined the effect of using WhatsApp on language learners' motivation, achievement, and language anxietyA pre‐ and post‐test approach with experimental and control condition has been used to evaluate the effect more accuratelyThe study employs Self‐determination Theory as a theoretical framework for testing a motivational process modelResults show that using WhatsApp predicted the outcomes directly and indirectly Implications for practice and/or policy: WhatsApp can significantly encourage university students to better learning of the language skills especially in times where face‐to‐face communication is limitedWhatsApp is conditioned by the guidance of instructors, their ongoing formative and summative assessmentWhatsApp appears to allow students enjoy their learning process due to the opportunities for collaborative work and constant exchange of content [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a computer-based story, which was designed in anchored instruction framework, on sixth-grade students' mathematics word problem-solving achievement. Problems were embedded in a story presented on a computer as computer story, and then compared with the paper-based version of the same story and to a condition that presented the problems as typical, isolated word problems (i.e., a non-story condition including only problems). One hundred twenty-eight sixth-grade students from two public middle schools in Turkey participated in this study. In a pretest-posttest experimental design, students were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups mentioned earlier in which they solved the same mathematics word problems. A one-way analysis of covariance was used to analyse students' achievement in the treatment groups. The results indicated that students who solved the problems in the computer story treatment had significantly higher achievement scores than students who solved the problems in the paper story and isolated word problems treatments. In addition, the story was found to be significantly more effective than the non-story treatment when it was presented on computer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training design for automatic skills has a vast domain of application, such as education, physical and cognitive rehabilitation, as well as sports, arts and professional training. Gamification concept used in technology‐assisted training has the potential to increase motivation, engagement and adherence to the training programme. Currently, the general gamification models of learning, did not take into account the temporal specificity of the game elements for automaticity acquisition training. In order to address this problem, an extensive overview of the key training attributes that impact automaticity acquisition was carried out. Then, based on this review, the three steps of a proposed model were presented. The first step of this model, named Task Analytics, helps with task‐specific training decisions. The second step provides descriptive and prescriptive approaches for the three phases of automaticity acquisition (fast learning, slow learning and automatization). The descriptive part characterizes each phase using psychological and performance‐related qualities, while the prescriptive part recommends the appropriate training elements for each phase. Based on the prescriptive part, a game‐design model is proposed in the third step, which classifies the game mechanics and maps them onto each phase of automaticity acquisition. Finally, to validate this approach, a mobile game was designed based on the proposed gamification model, and it was compared to control design. The two approaches are tested with 49 participants. The results showed that the experimental group had a significantly better engagement and higher performance. Furthermore, the experimental group showed significantly better performance in a multitasking challenge designed to evaluate the automaticity. The main contribution of this article is the proposed game design model that takes into account the temporal specificity of game elements during the acquisition of automaticity. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Automaticity is omnipresent in our daily lives. It includes a wide variety of physical or cognitive abilities.Training principles for knowledge acquisition are different from automaticity acquisition.Fostering automaticity needs a substantial amount of repetition, which in turn, requires motivation and engagement.Game‐based approaches can improve motivation and engagement. However, their designs have remained largely arbitrary and do not follow clear design guidelines. What this paper adds: Current serious game‐design models target knowledge acquisition or learning in general. However, the presented model focuses specifically on automaticity acquisition.This paper provides an updated and comprehensive overview of the key training elements required for the acquisition of automatic skills.This three‐step model is proposed based on the evidence in the literature; it suggests the appropriate training elements, and game mechanics for each phase of automaticity acquisition.The results of the experimental study validated the effectiveness of the proposed model. Implications for practice and/or policy: Medical conditions, in which an automatic skill (physical or cognitive) is affected, can greatly benefit from this serious game design model.In designing serious games, a differentiation should be made between knowledge acquisition and skill acquisition (including automaticity acquisition).Automaticity acquisition goes though phases and this should be reflected in both training design, as well as, serious game design.Some training design choices are task‐specific or depend on the target group (e.g., age). Hence, their designs should follow recommendations extracted from the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a large volume of published studies describing the positive role of Augmented Reality (AR) in educational settings. However, there is a paucity of empirical work that explores its role in supporting primary school pupil's motivation and creativity. Moreover, numerous studies have confirmed that pupils have difficulties in learning geometry and thinking geometrically. In this context, this paper explores the possibility of using AR software for low‐grade primary school pupils to enhance their creative thinking and increase their motivation during the informal geometry training course. A research‐based design process is adopted to replicate the primary school pupil's learning in this study, where pupils in the experimental group used mobile application to access AR virtual manipulatives, pupils in the control group used physical manipulatives. The applied AR technology allows pupils to handle 2D and 3D rounded corners and simple closed curves to find the most effective solutions for some learning challenges. Sixty‐two pupils from the first‐grade primary school in Egypt have participated in this study with the aim of investigating: (a) the primary school pupil's achievements and creative thinking in using AR techniques, and (b) the specific strategies that can increase their motivation and engagement. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that there was no statistically significant difference between the groups in geometry learning achievement, while statistically significant differences were found between the groups in the motivation and creative thinking skills in favour of the experimental group. Lay Description: What is already known about this topicAugmented Reality must have three characteristics: combining the real and virtual worlds, having real‐time interaction with the user and is being registered in a 3D environment.There is a growing body of literature that recognizes the importance of the 21st century skills in the new global economy.There has been significant interest in utilized AR in higher education. However, limited research has been conducted about integrating AR techniques to enhance young children's creative thinking skills and motivation in informal learning scenarios.To date, there are few studies that have investigated the association between augmented environment and learning theories. What this paper addsIntroduced an iterative methodology based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning integrating the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) as the inclusive learning approach for creating Smart‐flashcard as a mobile AR applications for elementary school.Research studies on informal learning are particularly limited, so this study can fill a gap in the literature.This paper provides a conceptual approach for AR design, based on multimedia learning theory.AR Smart‐flashcard application represents a shift away from traditional textbooks, flashcards and other learning material where children are limited to viewing learning content passively towards a more dynamic and augmented one. Implications for practice and/or policyUsing AR applications, children interact with the 3D models, enhance creativity and collaboration in teams.The informal education can play a crucial role in developing some of the skills required for the 21st century.The study also highlights the need for new approaches combing the technical learning tools and pedagogical foundation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: While automatic speech recognition (ASR) is increasingly used for commercial purposes, its influence on the learners' linguistic performance in terms of oral complexity, accuracy and fluency was under‐explored. To date, few studies have been conducted to investigate how the dictation ASR technology could be incorporated into language classrooms to facilitate the learners' language acquisition. Objectives: This study aimed to examine the effects of ASR‐based technology on English learners' oral accuracy and fluency and depict the corresponding development trajectories. Methods: A total of 160 first‐year university students were enrolled in a 14‐week quasi‐experiment based on a longitudinal research design. Both treatment and control groups were taught with the flipped classroom approach, but the students in the treatment group were particularly required to undertake a pre‐class task with ASR technology. Students' Unit Task performance was audio‐recorded, and the metrics of oral accuracy and fluency were coded and computed based on the recording transcripts. A two‐way repeated measures ANCOVA was conducted to investigate the between‐ and within‐subjects effects as well as the corresponding interaction effects. Results: In terms of the between‐subjects effect, the treatment group outperformed the control group on phonological accuracy, speed fluency and repair fluency. In terms of the within‐subjects effect, significant gains in lexical and morphosyntactic accuracy were witnessed over time in both groups, but the performance of the treatment group tended to be more stable. On all the fluency metrics and phonological accuracy, no significant within‐subjects improvement was seen over time. Implications: The development of oral accuracy may generate a negative impact on that of fluency. Therefore, course developers and teachers need to design special tasks and provide conditions conducive to the development of the students' oral fluency. Moreover, the mobile‐based dictation ASR application could incorporate adaptive artificial intelligence, which may escalate the students' fossilization of learner interlanguage. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?The ASR‐based technology is becoming popular in foreign language learning.The effect of ASR‐based technology on oral accuracy and fluency is still in a nascent phase. What this paper adds?This study explores how the mobile‐based dictation ASR technology facilitates English learners' oral accuracy and fluency.The dictation ASR‐based application integrated into pre‐class learning enhances English learners' phonological accuracy, speed fluency and repair fluency.The dictation ASR‐based application also contributed to a stable development of English learners' lexical and morphosyntactic accuracy over time. Implications for practiceEnglish teachers could integrate mobile‐based dictation ASR technology into pre‐class practice to improve the students' oral English accuracy and fluency in a flipped learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children are vulnerable in earthquakes, but they are also essential to foster earthquake‐resilient communities. It is critical to enhance the preparedness of children against earthquakes through effective education and training. Immersive virtual reality (IVR) and serious games (SGs) are innovative digital technologies that enable realistic and engaging training environments. However, little research has been made on the applications of IVR SGs for earthquake training targeting children. In order to fill this gap, this paper presents an IVR SG training system based on a problem‐based gaming framework. Three instructional mechanisms within the training system, namely prior instruction, immediate feedback, and post‐game assessment, were investigated to promote learning through effective reflection. A controlled experiment involving 125 secondary school students aged from 11 to 15 years old was undertaken, using leaflets as a traditional training approach for the control group and the IVR SG training system as the main intervention. Results revealed that the IVR SG training system with post‐game assessment was the most effective way to train children, with greater knowledge acquisition and self‐efficacy improvement observed. Possible improvements, such as increasing the time for reflection and differentiating the stimulation between positive and negative feedback, are suggested for further research. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic?: IVR SGs have potentials to train people in emergency behavioural responses, corresponding to problem‐based learning principles.Instructional mechanisms including immediate feedback, post‐game assessment, and prior instruction have been applied in IVR SGs in the literature. What this paper adds?: The present paper examines the pedagogical impacts of the three instructional mechanisms within IVR SGs.The present paper investigates the effectiveness of IVR SG‐based earthquake emergency training, targeting children. Implications for practice and/or policy: IVR SGs with the three instructional mechanisms effectively improve the self‐efficacy of children in the case of dealing with earthquake emergencies.IVR SGs with prior instruction and post‐game assessment facilitate learning, manifesting in significant knowledge gain after training.IVR SGs have the potential to train children in earthquake emergency responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Providing students with worked out problem solutions is a beneficial instructional technique in STEM disciplines, and studying examples that have been worked out incorrectly may be especially helpful for reducing misconceptions in students with low prior content knowledge. However, past results are inconclusive and the effects of incorrect worked examples alone or in combination with correct examples remains unclear. Objectives: We aim to address whether studying incorrect examples alone or in combination with correct examples can support the reduction of students' fraction misconceptions, operationalized as errors made with high confidence. Methods: After incorrectly solving a sampling problem, 130 students in 4th through 11th grade in the U.S. were randomly assigned to a condition in an online problem set focused on fraction equivalence. Students studied either single‐type worked examples (i.e., correct or incorrect; n = 49) or combination‐type worked examples (correct and incorrect; n = 41) or engaged in a problem‐solving control (n = 50). Results: Studying a combination of correct and incorrect worked examples was as effective as the problem‐solving control with feedback at improving fraction equivalence knowledge and reducing the rate of high‐confidence errors. Students in both the combination condition and the problem‐solving with feedback condition outperformed those who studied either correct or incorrect worked examples alone. Conclusions: Results support the inclusion of a combination of correct and incorrect worked examples when teaching students with low prior content knowledge. Studying a combination of example types within an online tutor helps to reduce misconceptions about fractions, a topic students commonly struggle with. A problem‐solving task with corrective feedback worked equally well. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Studying worked examples of mathematical solutions improves student learning.Incorrect examples, either alone or in combination with correct examples, are particularly effective for improving learning for students with low prior knowledge in the target content.Comparing correct and incorrect examples is also effective at improving problem‐solving but this effect may be specific to those with high prior knowledge.Still unknown are the impacts of these different combinations of examples on misconceptions in particular. What this paper adds: We show that studying a combination of correct and incorrect examples reduces math misconceptions.Problem‐solving with corrective feedback within an online tutor also has this effect. Implications for practice and/or policy: Using a combination of example types will help reduce students' misconceptions about fractions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Learning to use software using screencast videos with worked examples in the corresponding practice files presents a classic split‐attention problem that requires learners to mentally integrate information from the video with a target application. While there is evidence that splitting attention either temporally or spatially adversely impacts learning, it is unclear if there is a meaningful difference in the load imposed by splitting attention in different ways. Furthermore, while much is known about effective screencast design, little is known about how learning environment features, such as the monitor configuration, influence learning from this form of instruction. Objective: An experiment was conducted with 42 novice learners to compare the effects of two common monitor configurations that divided attention differently on three physiological measures of cognitive load. Methods: Effects due to the monitor setup were assessed using a 2 × 2 study design that controlled for task order and working memory capacity. In one condition, subjects split attention temporally by toggling back and forth between the video and target application on one monitor. In contrast, the other condition required subjects to split attention spatially by shifting their gaze between the video and target application displayed on two side‐by‐side monitors. Results and Conclusions: Results indicated that cognitive load as measured through task‐evoked pupil response was significantly higher, p < 0.05, for groups with two monitors during both instruction and testing, even after controlling for working memory capacity. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: Splitting attention between information sources negatively impacts learningInstructional media that splits attention temporally or spatially increases cognitive loadEnvironmental factors such as monitor configuration also contribute to cognitive loadPrior research suggests integrating the mutually referring information sources What the paper adds: Compares cognitive load in two monitor configurations designed to split attention differently – temporally and spatiallyCognitive load increased when attention was split spatially across two monitors during an encoding phaseCognitive load also increased when attention was split spatially across two monitors during a retrieval phaseWorking memory capacity did not explain variances in cognitive load Implications for practice: To reduce cognitive load, learners should consider working on one monitor while engaging with screencast software tutorials and the related practice filesFocus on studying worked examples in the video before attempting to replicate them in the practice filesWhen designing instructional videos, structure opportunities to practice closest to the point where they are taught in the video to avoid added cognitive load [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virtual reality (VR) is becoming increasingly accessible and being utilized in various organizations to meet education and training needs. Despite its potential, research regarding VR applications has focused on measuring the effectiveness of VR programs relative to non‐VR programs; consequently, the ways in which VR programs are effective remain unclear. Objectives: Recognizing this research gap, this study examined whether task type‐dependent differences in training outcomes exist between VR training and non‐VR training groups. Methods: To examine the effects of VR technology for training purposes in a military setting, we conducted a quasi‐experiment focusing on how the effects vary based on task characteristics. A total of 90 military personnel were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (VR) or a control group (non‐VR). After completing their respective training, the two groups participated in four tasks simulating real battle scenarios and designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the VR‐based training. We analysed primary data collected through survey instruments and performance evaluation using a one‐way between‐group analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and supplementary interview data using thematic analysis. Results and Conclusions: The quantitative analysis showed that the VR group performed better than the control group on three tasks in which communication, interaction and immediate situational judgements were critical. No difference was found between the two groups in the other task, which involved the routine operation of physical objects. Additional interview data revealed the extent to which trainees perceived the VR training as effective in understanding in‐situ conditions, preparing and practising their own and their team's reactions to emergent situations and in manipulating virtual objects. Implications: Our findings provide insight into VR technology's potential to enhance human performance in various training contexts. VR is specifically effective in training that aim to improve immediate judgement and group coordination. Our findings provide useful information for those seeking to design and develop training environments that maximize the effects of VR. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Virtual reality training is widely used to train personnel in high‐risk/cost occupations (e.g. surgeons and military personnel).Virtual reality education and training help to improve cognitive and affective function as well as psychomotor skills.The success of technology adoption depends on how well the task characteristics are aligned with technological characteristics. What this paper adds: The current study helps verify the generalizability of the TTF theory and provides an in‐depth framework that can be used to classify task types to optimize VR training.VR training programs are more effective when assigned tasks involve solving problems in groups and/or require spontaneous decision‐making than individual physical operations. Implications for practice and/or policy: When considering VR integration to an existing or new training program, the types of tasks to be designed in the program should be well‐aligned with the technological characteristics.At the organizational level, strategic adoption of VR in the training field should be initiated instead of replacing the existence of areas in current/traditional training (i.e. individual physical operation in this study). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Leaderboards are a highly popular gamification component used in student learning to enhance motivation, attentional engagement, and learning performance. However, few studies have examined the effects of individual leaderboard elements on English vocabulary learning through video lectures. Objectives: The present study aimed to examine how different leaderboard elements (i.e., points and rank) may affect students' English vocabulary learning through video lectures. Methods: A total of 34 students were assigned to groups using different leaderboard elements in a counterbalanced order. Participants' motivation, eye movements, and learning performance were measured and analysed. Results and Conclusions: Students' leaderboard rank was shown to increase their motivation regardless of whether other elements were present. Eye movement tracking revealed that the presence of the leaderboard increased students' saccades between the questions and the options, and lengthened their dwell time on the learning materials while reducing their dwell time on the non‐learning‐related screen areas. Presenting students' rank alone also improved their learning performance. Implications: Our findings strongly support the use of video lectures for English vocabulary learning, with the following recommendations: (1) Instructors should present students' rank on the leaderboard to enhance students' motivation and engagement; (2) Instructors should present only the students' rank on the leaderboard to also enhance students' learning performance. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: While learning English vocabulary from video lectures, students might experience low levels of motivation and engagement, and pay less attention to the lectures.Leaderboards are a highly popular gamification component used in student learning to enhance motivation, attentional engagement, and learning performance.It remains unclear which leaderboard elements (i.e., points or rank) contribute most significantly to the effectiveness of the leaderboards. What this paper adds: Leaderboard elements have different effects on English vocabulary learning.The rank on the leaderboard benefited students' motivation and engagement.The rank also enhances students' confidence and learning performance. Implications for practice and/or policy: Instructors should present students' rank on the leaderboard to enhance students' motivation and engagement.Instructors should present only the students' rank on the leaderboard to also enhance students' learning performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Formative online multiple‐choice tests are ubiquitous in higher education and potentially powerful learning tools. However, commonly used feedback approaches in online multiple‐choice tests can discourage meaningful engagement and enable strategies, such as trial‐and‐error, that circumvent intended learning outcomes. These strategies will not prepare graduates as self‐regulated learners, nor for the complexities of contemporary work settings. Objectives: To investigate whether providing only a score after formative online multiple‐choice test attempts (score‐only feedback) increases the likelihood of students to engage in self‐regulated learning compared with more directive feedback. Measurable outcomes included deeper learning, collaboration, information seeking, and satisfaction. Methods: Data in this mixed methods study were collected from nursing students through surveys, test results, focus groups, and student discussion board contributions. A quasi‐experimental design was used for quantitative data, and qualitative data were analysed thematically against domains of self‐regulated learning. Results and Conclusions: Students receiving score‐only feedback were more cognitively engaged with the content, collaborated constructively, and sought out richer sources of information. However, it was also associated with lower satisfaction. In this study, minimal feedback created states of uncertainty, which resulted in the activation of self‐regulatory actions. Implications for Practice: Providing overly directive feedback for formative online multiple‐choice tests is conducive to surface‐level learning strategies. By minimising feedback and allowing for extended states of uncertainty, students are more likely to regulate their learning through self‐assessment and problem‐solving strategies, all of which are required by graduates to meet the challenges of real‐world work settings. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Formative online multiple‐choice tests are widely used in higher education.Feedback is a critical element in the design of effective online multiple‐choice tests.Formative feedback should promote self‐regulated learning.Feedback types used in multiple‐choice tests facilitate strategies not conducive to self‐regulation. What this paper adds: Online multiple‐choice test feedback can influence how students self‐regulate their learning.Less feedback can result in greater self‐evaluation and performance in summative assessment.Less feedback can encourage richer help‐seeking strategies (collaboration and information seeking).However, less feedback can result in student dissatisfaction. Implications for practice and/or policy: Judicious use of feedback is required in the design of online multiple‐choice tests.Educators should consider providing less feedback to promote learner self‐regulation.Satisfaction with online multiple‐choice tests does not necessarily equate to greater learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Flipped classroom (FC) model has become increasingly popular in dental education (DE) with its strengths for students. However, major concerns are lack of interaction, unwillingness to complete the assignments, low engagement during the pre‐class activities because of an unwell‐designed instructional setting of FC. Objectives: The recent study aims to investigate the effects of video‐driven discussions integrated into the flipped classroom (VdDs‐FC) model on dental students' (DSs) learning achievement, practical performance, and higher‐order thinking skills in a restorative dentistry course. Methods: This study adopted a sequential explanatory design from mixed‐methods research. A total of 96 DSs participated in a dentistry faculty of Türkiye. They were randomly divided into two groups: VdDs‐FC group and the conventional flipped classroom (c‐FC) group. Results and conclusions: The results showed that the VdDs‐FC model had significant positive effects on the practical performance of DSs in practical subjects and their problem‐solving and critical thinking skills. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups in learning achievement and creativity. The use of FC in the c‐FC group did not lead to any difference in the students' achievements. Moreover, the qualitative results indicated that the VdDs‐FC model has the potential for enhancing peer learning, practical classroom activities, and higher‐order thinking skills. Implications: This study also includes several instructional implications and suggestions for educators, researchers, and practitioners on use of FC in dentistry. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Flipped learning has become a rapidly growing area of dentistry research.Discussion board could be beneficial to increasing dental students' higher order thinking skills, especially problem solving and critical thinking.Video‐driven discussions into flipped classroom provide several opportunities for practical performance in dental education, not for theoretical knowledge. What this paper adds: Video‐driven discussions into flipped classroom model is proposed.We compared two learning environments by including traditional flipped classroom.We found that the integrated model with flipped classroom can have a positive impact on students' achievement.Online discussions usage contributed to higher cognitive, affective, and behavioural learning outcomes.Based on interview data, the proposed model supports peer learning. Implications for practice and/or policy: Dental educators should integrated the digital discussion boards as out‐of‐class activities in the pre‐clinical dental training.From dental educators' perspective, they should be carefully trained in FC design (interaction elements, material design, integration with different methods, etc.).From instructional design perspective, micro videos should have case‐based or problem‐based activities to discuss.From learner perspective, an integration of the flipped classroom with different technologies could have a positive effect on increasing learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Critical thinking and argumentative writing are considered complex but essential skills for learners. However, few studies have examined how instructions can be designed to optimize the development of such skills simultaneously. Contextualized in flipped language classrooms, this study aimed to develop an instructional innovation for English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Objectives: This study investigated the effects of an annotation‐supported Socratic questioning (ASSQ) approach as a flipped classroom enhancement on students' argumentative writing and critical thinking in an EFL writing course. Methods: Fifty students from two classes participated in the study, and they were randomly assigned to an experimental group and a comparison group. Following an 8‐week flipped learning curriculum, the experimental group learned with the proposed ASSQ approach in the enhanced flipped classroom, while the comparison group was exposed to the traditional flipped classroom. Students' argumentative writing performance was evaluated with their argumentative essays using a researcher‐developed writing rubric, and their critical thinking skills were assessed using the California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Results: Both groups significantly improved their argumentative writing, and the experimental group also significantly outperformed the comparison group after learning through the proposed approach. While the two groups had no significant difference in critical thinking skills, the within‐group comparison results revealed that the experimental group made significant improvements due to the instructional intervention. Implications: The ASSQ approach could enhance the flipped classroom in regard to the teaching of argumentative writing, whereas it bears only limited impact on critical thinking. Overall, the positive effect of the proposed approach on enhancing English learners' argumentative writing performance was mainly attributed to the combined affordances of Socratic questioning and a social annotation tool to scaffold the students' thinking through verbal articulation, and to visualize their thinking with social annotations throughout the flipped learning process. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Recent research has indicated that flipped classrooms can provide a more engaging context for encouraging active learning of students than traditional lecture‐based classrooms.Socratic questioning, which uses thought‐provoking questioning prompts to guide discussions, has been shown to be an active learning strategy to foster students' critical thinking skills.Social annotation tools are helpful in facilitating students' active learning in reading and comprehension. What this paper adds: This study proposed an annotation‐supported Socratic questioning (ASSQ) approach, merging the use of a social annotation tool and an active learning strategy, to enhance the instructional design of flipped language classrooms for English learners.Under the flipped learning conditions, the experimental group who learned with the ASSQ approach significantly outperformed the comparison group without this aid in argumentative writing performance.Under the flipped learning conditions, the proposed ASSQ approach could help both groups of students make satisfactory improvement in critical thinking skills, but there was no significant difference between the groups. Implications for practice: The combination of a social annotation tool and Socratic questioning into an integrated active learning approach can be applied to effectively flip argumentative writing courses for English learners.The proposed ASSQ approach can be adopted in longitudinal studies to explore its potential effect on critical thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]