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Background: Japanese EFL learners often fail to identify and categorise the different degrees of certainty associated with CERTAIN, PROBABLE, and POSSIBLE items. This computer‐mediated study evaluated the relative effects of animated versus static illustrations on stimulating the spatial concept of distance for the acquisition of this knowledge. Objectives: This study aimed to: (1) discover whether the spatial concept of distance captured by three‐dimensional (3D) images in animated or static illustrations help learners understand spatial relationships more clearly, and (2) whether a static illustration is sufficient for learning the different degrees of certainty. Method: Animated and static visualisation groups used 3D images of animated versus static illustrations that capture the spatial concept of distance, and a contrasting group did not use illustrations. The former applied the spatial concept of distance to learn the degrees of certainty, using animated or static illustrations. A spatial concept‐oriented approach that visualises concepts of distance enabled participants to understand the degrees of certainty. The contrasting approach involved rote learning of a list of target expressions for the different degrees of certainty in English. Results and Conclusions: Both the animated and static versions of the spatial concept‐oriented approaches were equally effective. The difference between the two versions did not significantly impact the overall performance of the groups. Takeaways: Regardless of the type of effect, the spatial concept of distance captured in words and illustrations helped the participants (1) process the different degrees of certainty cognitively in terms of distances and (2) retain them in long‐term memory. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Understanding our experiences in terms of metaphors based on spatially visualised concepts of the physical world leads to mapping the embodied concepts onto non‐embodied concepts and retaining these in long‐lasting memory.3D descriptions direct people's attention to the spatially visualised concepts, which influences people to internalise them with ease.The lack of consensus (in previous studies) on the effect of animated versus static versions of the metaphor awareness‐raising approach with either 2D or 3D images has some relevance to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. What this paper adds: Computer‐generated 3D images were used to help participants in the metaphor‐based groups understand spatial relationships related to the degrees of certainty among certain, probable, and possible items.This study evaluated the relative effects of animated versus static illustrations on stimulating the spatial concept of distance for the acquisition of this knowledge.The animated and static version of the metaphor‐based approach groups outperformed those in the non‐metaphor‐based and control groups. Implications for practice and/or policy: It is necessary to consider all possible confounding variables and control for their effects when designing future animation versus static studies.Further analysis of the spatial concept‐oriented metaphor‐based approach from the perspectives of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning combined with cognitive linguistic theory would be beneficial for fellow researchers and teachers to gain insight into the nuances of the approach and expand its application in the EFL context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary writing is a useful instructional tool for learning. However, summary writing is a challenge to many students. This mixed‐method study examined the potential of the Student Mental Model Analyzer for Research and Teaching (SMART) system to help students produce summaries that reflect key concepts and relations in a text. SMART uses the students' summary to generate a multi‐dimensional 3S (surface, structure, semantic) evaluation of the students' mental model. This model is then used to drive feedback to help students revise their summary. The current study is an initial investigation examining whether writing and revising in SMART improves students' summary quality. Students (n = 38) in a graduate‐level online course used SMART for seven reading assignments. The 38 students submitted a total of 357 summaries in response to the seven readings. In 47 cases, students produced both an initial draft and a modified revision. These 47 cases were selected for analysis. In the quantitative phase, MANOVA results indicated that students' summaries improved along the 3S dimensions from initial draft to revision. In the qualitative phase, inspection of exemplar cases revealed how students' mental models changed towards more robust and cohesive knowledge structure for texts. Lay Description: Lay DescriptionWhat is already known about this topicTexts are the main means of acquiring new information.Writing a summary is frequently used as a tool for learning from text.Even proficient readers often struggle to learn from text due to insufficient support.Automated summary evaluation (ASE) can help students revise their summaries.What this paper addsWe introduce the Student Mental Model Analyzer for Research and Teaching (SMART) system.SMART uses a written summary to evaluate the quality of the learner's mental models.SMART analyses a student's mental model in surface, structural and semantic dimensions.SMART helps students improve content‐coverage and overall quality of their summaries.Implications for practiceSMART can be a supplement in classrooms to help students learn from complex texts.Teachers can use SMART to provide real‐time, personalized, formative feedback at a scale.Students can use SMART to comprehend the text to prepare for meaningful class discussion.Scholars can use SMART to investigate expertise development in summary via instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]