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Land–atmospheric feedback influences the occurrence and severity of flash droughts. However, the observed and projected changes in flash droughts and associated land–atmospheric coupling have not been examined over India. Moreover, the causes of the rapid depletion of soil moisture during flash droughts are not well known. We identify major flash droughts and associated soil moisture–vapor pressure deficit (SM–VPD) coupling in India using ERA5 and simulations from global climate models (CMIP6-GCMs). The summer monsoon season (June–September) witnesses more than 60% of the flash drought events and a relatively higher rate of flash drought development. The flash drought frequency has mainly decreased during India's observed climate (1980–2019), which is projected to decline further in the future warming climate. On the other hand, the flash drought development rate has significantly increased during the observed period, which is projected to enhance further under the warming climate. SM–VPD coupling during the flash drought onset-development phase is considerably higher (threefold to fivefold) than during the normal condition (in the absence of flash drought). The high (low) SM–VPD coupling explains the faster (slower) flash drought development rate in the observed and future warming climate. The strength of SM–VPD coupling has increased in the recent period and is projected to increase further in the future warming climate. The increased SM–VPD coupling can intensify future flash droughts in India, especially during the summer monsoon season, with considerable implications for agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems. Significance Statement: This study aims to understand better the role of land–atmospheric coupling in explaining flash drought characteristics (frequency and development rate) in India. Strong land–atmospheric (SM–VPD) feedback might influence the regional weather patterns during flash drought, which often negatively impacts humans and the ecosystem. We explain the causes and drivers of increasing (decreasing) flash drought development rate (frequency) in India. The long-term change in SM–VPD coupling drives the frequency of flash drought, whereas an anomalous instantaneous change in coupling controls the flash drought development rate. More intense flash droughts contributed by the increased land–atmospheric coupling are projected in the future. Predicting the SM–VPD coupling metric can facilitate more time for preparedness, resulting in minimizing the flash drought impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Precipitation in eastern China exhibits large interannual variability during July with the northward movement of the monsoon rain belt. Thus, eastern China usually experiences severe droughts and floods in July. However, the influences of underlying surface thermal drivers, particularly the land factors, remain poorly understood. This study investigates the leading modes of July precipitation in eastern China and their potential influencing factors. The first and second empirical orthogonal function (EOF) modes show meridional dipole and tripolar precipitation anomalies in eastern China, respectively. The EOF1 mode is found to be closely associated with sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans in June, while the EOF2 mode is mainly linked to anomalous Indian Ocean SST and Indochina Peninsula soil moisture in June. During years with a strong El Niño–South Oscillation (ENSO) signal, the EOF1 mode is mainly related to the enhanced Walker and Hadley circulations associated with the cold tropical Pacific SST anomalies. In contrast, during years with a weak ENSO signal, the Eurasian midlatitude wave train and the westward zonal overturning circulation associated with tripole-like North Atlantic SST anomalies play a leading role. The EOF2 mode is mainly influenced by Indian Ocean SST anomalies that alter the Walker circulation and by soil moisture anomalies in the Indochina Peninsula that induce an anomalous regional cyclonic circulation. Numerical experiments further demonstrated that the combined effects of soil moisture and SST exert a more substantial impact than their individual effects. These results emphasize the importance of surface thermal factors in understanding regional climate dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies focus on the impacts of ENSO diversity on tropical cyclone (TC) activities in the western North Pacific (WNP). In recent years, there is a growing threat of landfalling and northward-moving TCs in East Asia, accompanying an increase in central Pacific (CP) El Niño. Here, we aim to discover variations in landfalling TCs during various types of CP El Niño (CP-I and CP-II El Niño). It is found that significant changes in landfalling and going northward TCs over East Asia north 20°N are modulated by CP-I El Niño. During CP-I El Niño, TCs tend to landfall more often over the mainland of China with longer duration, moving distance, and stronger power dissipation index (PDI) after landfall and increased TC-induced rainfall, due to favorable conditions (beneficial steering flow, weak vertical wind shear, increased specific humidity, increased soil moisture, and temperature), especially significant over the northeastern part. The situation over the mainland of China is reversed during eastern Pacific (EP) El Niño and CP-II El Niño, with a significant decrease in the characteristics with corresponding unfavorable environments. Over the Korean Peninsula and Japan, the frequency of TC landfalls, as well as the duration and the moving distance after landfall, exhibits greater levels during CP-I and CP-II El Niño than during EP El Niño due to favorable steering flow, and thus, TC-induced rainfall enhances correspondingly. Regarding the PDI over the Korean Peninsula and Japan, it remains relatively consistent across all El Niño types. However, a notable increase in the PDI during EP El Niño could be attributed to the higher intensity of TCs prior to landfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the effects of land-use (LU) change on regional climate, comparing historical and future scenarios using seven climate models from phase 6 of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project–Land Use Model Intercomparison Project experiments. LU changes are evaluated relative to land-use conditions during the preindustrial climate. Using the Community Earth System Model, version 2–Large Ensemble (CESM2-LE) experiment, we distinguish LU impacts from natural climate variability. We assess LU impact locally by comparing the impacts of climate change in neighboring areas with and without LU changes. Further, we conduct CESM2 experiments with and without LU changes to investigate LU-related climate processes. A multimodel analysis reveals a shift in LU-induced climate impacts, from cooling in the past to warming in the future climate across midlatitude regions. For instance, in North America, LU's effect on air temperature changes from −0.24° ± 0.18°C historically to 0.62° ± 0.27°C in the future during the boreal summer. The CESM2-LE shows a decrease in LU-driven cooling from −0.92° ± 0.09°C in the past to −0.09° ± 0.09°C in future boreal summers in North America. A hydroclimatic perspective linking LU and climate feedback indicates LU changes causing soil moisture drying in the midlatitude regions. This contrasts with hydrology-only views showing wetter soil conditions due to LU changes. Furthermore, global warming causes widespread drying of soil moisture across various regions. Midlatitude regions shift from a historically wet regime to a water-limited transitional regime in the future climate. This results in reduced evapotranspiration, weakening LU-driven cooling in future climate projections. A strong linear relationship exists between soil moisture and evaporative fraction in midlatitudes. Significance Statement: Land–atmosphere feedback involving soil moisture can increase local temperature and affect how land-use (LU) change impacts manifest in a warming climate. Conversely, an increased surface reflectance due to LU change can decrease local temperature in the midlatitude regions. Further, the LU change signal is often mixed with the internal climate variability, making it harder to separate. This study uses a novel technique to separate LU change impact from other climate forcing in the latest generation of climate and Earth system models. In the future climate, soil moisture drying lessens the cooling impact. A large-ensemble climate experiment analysis confirms a significant weakening of the LU-driven cooling impact in the midlatitudes. Both LU and climate changes exacerbate soil moisture drying, leading to a shift toward a water-limited system where hydrological feedback becomes more influential than radiative feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interannual fluctuations in average summertime temperatures across the western United States are captured by a leading empirical orthogonal function that explains over 50% of the total observed variance. In this paper, we explain the origins of this pattern of interannual temperature variability by examining soil moisture–temperature coupling that acts across seasons in observations and climate models. We find that a characteristic pattern of coupled temperature–soil moisture climate variability accounts for 34% of the total observed variance in summertime temperature across the region. This pattern is reproduced in state-of-the-art global climate models, where experiments that eliminate soil moisture variability reduce summertime average temperature variance by a factor of 3 on average. We use an idealized model of the coupled atmospheric boundary layer and underlying land surface to demonstrate that feedbacks between soil moisture, boundary layer relative humidity, and precipitation can explain the observed relations between springtime soil moisture and summertime temperature. Our results suggest that antecedent soil moisture conditions and subsequent land–atmosphere interactions play an important role in interannual summertime temperature variability in the western United States; soil moisture variations cause distal temperature anomalies and impart predictability at time scales longer than one season. Our results indicate that 40% of the observed warming trend across the western United States since 1981 has been driven by wintertime precipitation trends in the U.S. southwest. Significance Statement: Year-to-year fluctuations in summertime temperatures have a large impact on drought, wildfire, and extreme heat across the Western United States. We find strong evidence that soil moisture deficits in the preceding spring may be the primary driver of higher-than-average summer temperatures in this region. Our results suggest that memory in the water cycle may lead to greater predictability in the climate system from season to season and that trends in southwest precipitation have exerted a considerable influence on observed warming over the past 40 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potential predictability of 2-yr droughts indicated by low runoff in the consecutive April–September seasons in the upper Missouri River basin (UMRB) and lower Missouri River basin (LMRB) is examined with observed estimates and climate models. The majority of annual runoff is generated in April–September, which is also the main precipitation and evapotranspiration season. Physical features related to low April–September runoff in both UMRB and LMRB include a dry land surface state indicated by low soil moisture, low snowpack indicated by low snow water equivalent, and a wave train across the Pacific–North American region that can be generated internally by the atmosphere or forced by the La Niña phase of El Niño–Southern Oscillation. When present in March, these features increase the risk of low runoff in the following April–September warm seasons. Antecedent low soil moisture significantly increases low runoff risks in each of the following two April–September, as the dry land surfaces decrease runoff efficiency. Initial low snow water equivalent, especially in the Missouri River headwaters of Montana, generates less runoff in the subsequent warm season. La Niña increases the risk of low runoff during the warm seasons by suppressing precipitation via dynamically induced atmospheric circulation anomalies. Model simulations that differ in their radiative forcing suggest that climate change increases the predictability of 2-yr droughts in the Missouri River basin related to La Niña. The relative risk of low runoff in the second April–September following a La Niña event in March is greater in the presence of stronger radiative forcing. Significance Statement: Drought spanning consecutive years in the upper Missouri River basin (UMRB) and lower Missouri River basin (LMRB) poses threats to a region whose economy depends on reliable water quantity to support transportation and recreation, adequate water supply for irrigated agriculture, and sufficient streamflow to generate hydroelectric power. We examined physical features in March related to low runoff in the following April–September—low soil moisture, low snow water equivalent, and La Niña events—and examined their effect on the risk of 2-yr drought occurrences. These physical features lead to sustained impacts on the surface water balance. Low snow water equivalent generates less runoff, low soil moisture reduces the runoff efficiency of converting precipitation into runoff, and La Niña inhibits warm-season precipitation and runoff via atmospheric circulation anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is no simple explanation for the spatial structure of near-surface relative humidity over land. We present a diagnostic theory for zonally and temporally averaged near-surface relative humidity (RH) over land based on energy budgets of an atmospheric column in radiative–convective equilibrium. The theory analytically relates RH to the surface evaporative fraction (EF), has no calibrated parameters, and is quantitatively accurate when compared with RH from a reanalysis, and with cloud-permitting simulations over an idealized land surface. The theory is used to answer two basic questions. First, why is RH never especially low (e.g., 1%)? The theory shows that established lower bounds on EF over land and ocean are equivalent to lower bounds on RH that preclude particularly low values, at least for conditions typical of the modern Earth. Second, why is the latitudinal profile of RH over land shaped like the letter W, when both specific humidity and saturation specific humidity essentially decline monotonically from the equator to the poles? The theory predicts that the latitudinal profile of RH should look more like that of water stored in the soil (which also exhibits a W-shaped profile) than in the air (which does not). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The South Asian high (SAH) location and intensity are linked with the latent heating of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) and Yangtze River basin. The relationship between SAH variability and its impact on South Asian monsoon (SAM) onset is rarely linked with TP soil moisture. This study uses remotely sensed soil moisture and reanalysis products to quantify the relationship between the TP spring (April–June) soil moisture with SAH and SAM onset during 1988–2008. The results show that the TP spring soil moisture and monsoon onset indices are negatively correlated (R < −0.65), whereas the SAH exhibits a significant positive correlation (R ≥ 0.70) with TP soil moisture. The monsoon onset shows a difference of 20–25 days between the early- and late-onset composites. Significant positive (negative) soil moisture anomalies persist over the TP during the early (late) onset followed by positive (negative) LH (SH) anomalies during early (late)-onset composites. The TP thermal forcing exhibited positive anomalies during the early (late)-onset composites implying significant soil moisture control over the diabatic heating, which favors vertical ascent over the eastern plateau. Such a pattern leads to an earlier formation and movement of the SAH toward the Bay of Bengal (BOB) and southwestward of the TP. Before the early and late monsoon onset composites, the SAH pentad evolution drives the lower-tropospheric westerlies/easterlies toward continental SA. In the Indian Ocean the wind shear and transition from prevailing easterlies into westerlies during the pre-onset, onset, and post-onset pentad results in strong/weak ascent affecting the onset timing over the Arabian Sea and continental SA with less influence over the BOB monsoon onset. Significance Statement: The Tibetan Plateau heating is one of the key drivers of the Asian monsoon precipitation in the surrounding regions, which has been previously studied in detail. This study explored the Tibetan Plateau spring soil moisture's effect on South Asian monsoon onset timing. The monsoon onset timing is calculated using changes in wind direction, atmospheric temperature, and relative precipitation magnitude. Results found that the spring soil moisture substantially affects the TP thermal heating and the SA monsoon onset timing and highlights the physical processes leading to changes in the monsoon onset timing. The inclusion of soil moisture in estimating the monsoon onset timing can provide a tangible way of improving our understanding of the monsoon and associated water resources management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human heat stress depends jointly on atmospheric temperature and humidity. Wetter soils reduce temperature but also raise humidity, making the collective impact on heat stress unclear. To better understand these interactions, we use ERA5 to examine the coupling between daily average soil moisture and wet-bulb temperature (Tw) and its seasonal and diurnal cycle at global scale. We identify a global soil moisture–Tw coupling pattern with both widespread negative and positive correlations in contrast to the well-established cooling effect of wet soil on dry-bulb temperature. Regions showing positive correlations closely resemble previously identified land–atmosphere coupling hotspots where soil moisture effectively controls surface energy partition. Soil moisture–Tw coupling varies seasonally closely tied to monsoon development, and the positive coupling is slightly stronger and more widespread during nighttime. Local-scale analysis demonstrates a nonlinear structure of soil moisture–Tw coupling with stronger coupling under relatively dry soils. Hot days with high Tw values show wetter-than-normal soil, anomalous high latent and low sensible heat flux from a cooler surface, and a shallower boundary layer. This supports the hypothesis that wetter soil increases Tw by concentrating surface moist enthalpy flux within a shallower boundary layer and reducing free-troposphere-air entrainment. We identify areas of particular interest for future studies on the physical mechanisms of soil moisture–heat stress coupling. Our findings suggest that increasing soil moisture might amplify heat stress over large portions of the world including several densely populated areas. These results also raise questions about the effectiveness of evaporative cooling strategies in ameliorating urban heat stress. Significance Statement: The purpose of this study is to provide a global picture of the relationship between soil moisture anomalies and a heat stress metric that includes the joint effects of temperature and humidity. This is important because a better understanding of this relationship will help improve the prediction of extreme heat stress events and inform strategies for ameliorating heat stress. We find a widespread positive correlation between soil moisture and heat stress, in contrast to studies relying on temperature alone. This raises the possibility that, over much of the world, and in the most populous regions, strategies like irrigation or "greening" that can reduce temperature might be ineffective or even harmful in reducing heat stress with humidity incorporated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater and climate interact in a two-way manner. Precipitation ultimately controls groundwater recharge and, conversely, groundwater may influence climate through evapotranspiration. Yet very few global climate models or Earth system models actually simulate groundwater flows. And while the expected impacts of climate change on groundwater resources are the subject of a growing concern, global-scale groundwater–climate feedbacks have received very little attention so far. Here we show that the integration of unconfined aquifers in a global climate model can regionally affect the climate change signal on temperatures and precipitation. We assess the impact of groundwater under preindustrial and 4xCO2 conditions (after climate stabilization). In both cases, we find that groundwater has a cooling and a wetting effect in certain regions of the world. In eastern Europe, both these impacts are stronger in the warmer climate (4xCO2 forcing) where the presence of groundwater reduces the frequency of summer heatwaves by 40%, compared to a 15% reduction in the preindustrial world. This work constitutes one of the very first global assessments of the potential feedbacks of groundwater on climate change. Our results support the idea that groundwater should be represented in global climate models and Earth system models, as it does indeed play an active role in the climate system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thresholds of soil moisture exist below which the atmosphere becomes hypersensitive to land surface drying, inducing thermal feedbacks that can exacerbate heatwaves. Realistic representation of threshold transitions in forecast models could improve extreme heat predictability and understanding of the role of land–atmosphere coupling. This study evaluates the performance of several forecast models from the Subseasonal Experiment (SubX) and several prototype versions of the Unified Forecast System (UFS) in their representation of threshold transitions by validation against reanalysis data. A metric of skill (true skill score) is applied to soil moisture breakpoint values, which mark the transition to heatwave hypersensitivity for drying soils. Forecast models have poor skill at being initialized on the correct side of the breakpoint, but show improvement when normalized to account for deficiencies in their soil moisture climatologies. Regionally, models performed best in the U.S. Northwest and worst in the Southwest. They effectively capture the tendency of western regions to spend more summer days in the hypersensitive regime than the eastern United States. Models represent well extreme heat as a consequence of atmospheric initial state for the first week of the forecast, but struggle to represent the soil moisture feedback regime. Forecast models generally perform better at extreme heat prediction when they are already dry and in the hypersensitive regime, even when erroneously so, implying that errors or biases exist in model parameterizations. Nevertheless, composite analysis shows encouraging model performance of the "hit" category, suggesting that an improvement in soil moisture initialization could further improve extreme heat forecast skill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the strongest interannual signature in the tropical air–sea system and can affect global atmospheric variables, but ENSO's climatic impact on land surface variables such as skin temperature, snow cover, and soil moisture that can serve as seasonal climate predictors remains relatively little known. Here we examine ENSO's impact on the three land surface variables in Northern Hemisphere extratropics by regression analysis, using a combination of ERA5 reanalysis, GLDAS, satellite-based observations, and CESM2 simulations. Our results show that during El Niño winters anomalous land surface warming occurs in Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes, accompanied by snow cover reduction, especially in northern North America and eastern Europe, while anomalous cooling occurs in southern North America and the Tibetan Plateau, accompanied by increased snow cover. Meanwhile, increased soil moisture is observed in southern North America, central Asia, and southeast China. Further analysis indicates that atmospheric moisture processes dominate the formation of the land surface anomalies, for which the changes in water vapor and precipitation induced by the ENSO-related large-scale atmospheric teleconnection are critical. The anomalous land surface warming in midlatitudes mainly results from the increased downward longwave radiation due to the increase of water vapor, whereas the physical pathway causing water vapor anomalies is different over North America and Eurasia. Controlled by ENSO-induced changes in atmospheric circulation and moisture transport, anomalous precipitation explains most of the snow cover and soil moisture anomalies, which play a certain role in shaping the skin temperature anomalies in some regions through snow–albedo feedback and evaporation, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tibetan Plateau (TP) exerts strong powerful thermal forcing, which plays a vital role in influencing weather–climate variations in Asia and even the Northern Hemisphere. However, the causes of thermal variation over the TP have not been fully revealed. Here, the role of winter soil moisture (SM) in subsequent summer thermal anomalies on the TP was investigated through multisource datasets for the period 1979–2014. Results indicate a significant positive relationship (r = 0.52) between winter SM and subsequent summer-mean surface air temperature (SAT). Further investigations show that more (less) winter SM results in abundant (deficient) atmospheric water vapor in subsequent summer owing to its persistence. Furthermore, Earth’s surface energy budget equation confirms that strengthened (weakened) surface downward longwave radiation caused by increased (decreased) water vapor is the dominant factor leading to SAT variations, even more significant for nocturnal SAT. The winter SM–atmospheric temperature positive relationship can extend from the surface to 200 hPa over the TP. In addition, the enhanced (weakened) atmospheric latent heat release associated with increased (decreased) water vapor content may be another important factor contributing to changes in atmospheric temperatures over the TP. Therefore, our results contribute to a better understanding of the effect of land–surface processes on thermal anomalies over the TP. Significance Statement Understanding the causes of thermal anomalies over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) is crucial for weather and climate variations, but the role of winter soil moisture (SM) in subsequent summer thermal effects is largely unknown. This study investigated the relationship between winter SM and thermal anomalies in subsequent summers on the TP. Results show that the above (below)-normal winter SM will cause warm (cold) atmospheric temperatures in the subsequent summer. The above (below)-normal winter SM anomalies bring increased (decreased) atmospheric water vapor in summer owing to its persistence, resulting in strengthened (weakened) downward longwave radiation and atmospheric latent heat release to heat (cool) the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In North China (NC), heat stress, which can be quantitatively characterized by wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), is closely related to specific humidity. This study focuses on the total days for NC average daily maximum WBGT exceeding 26°C (WGBT26) per summer (June–August) from 1979 to 2017. Rather than local precipitation or evaporation in NC, the NC WBGT26 is significantly related to the nonlocal evaporation around the Yangtze River valley (YR). The abnormal positive evaporated water vapor in YR, associated with anomalously high water vapor flux from south to north at 925 hPa, is continuously transported to NC in the above-normal WBGT26 years. Such an abnormal "evaporation and transportation" process can significantly increase the water vapor in NC and therefore enhance WBGT26. The evaporation in YR peaks in mid- to late July and is closely associated with the occurrence days for daily maximum WBGT exceeding 26°C and maximum daily mean specific humidity at 925 hPa in summer. The main driver for the strongest YR evaporation anomaly from 15 July to 15 August is the simultaneous surface air temperature rather than the simultaneous or earlier soil moisture, precipitation, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) anomaly. This condition is due to the continuously abundant soil moisture in the YR from April to September. The results of this study provide new ideas for studying heat stress in NC, indicating that nonlocal land–atmosphere interactions are crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standardized precipitation index (SPI) is one of the frequently used meteorological drought indices. However, the time-varying characteristics observed in the historical precipitation data questions the reliability of SPI and motivated the development of nonstationary SPI. To overcome some of the limitations in the existing nonstationary drought indices, a new framework for drought index is proposed, incorporating the temporal dynamics in the precipitation. The proposed drought index is developed by coupling the joint deficit index with the extended time sliding window–based nonstationary modeling (TSW-NSM). The proposed nonstationary joint deficit index (NJDI) detects the signature of nonstationarity in the distribution parameter and models both long-term (i.e., trend) and short-term (i.e., step-change) temporal dynamics of distribution parameters. The efficacy of NJDI is demonstrated by employing it to identify the meteorological drought-prone areas over India. The changes observed in the distribution parameter of rainfall series reveal an increasing number of dry days in recent decades all over India, except the northeast. Comparison of NJDI and stationary joint deficit index (JDI) reveals that JDI overestimates drought when frequent severe dry events are clustered and underestimates when these events are scattered, which indicates that the traditional index is biased toward the lowest magnitude of precipitation while classifying the drought. Moreover, NJDI could closely capture historical droughts and their spatial variations, thereby reflecting the temporal dynamics of rainfall series and the changes in the pattern of dry events over India. NJDI proves to be a potentially reliable index for drought monitoring in a nonstationary climate. Significance Statement: Drought is one of the most severe natural disasters and is expected to intensify under a warming climate. There has been progress on developing newer methodologies to characterize drought severity under the changing climate. However, some limitations remain in capturing the temporal changes of the precipitation, especially the nonstationarity in variance (rapid increases in extreme precipitation versus the average precipitation). We propose an extension to the time sliding window approach to capture the nonstationarity in variance and mean while incorporating short-term (step-change) and long-term (trend) temporal dynamics. We apply the methodology to a subcontinent-sized heterogeneous country of India with gridded rainfall dataset (0.25° × 0.25°, 1901–2013) from the India Meteorological Department. We find that the majority of grids exhibit negative and positive trends in shape and scale parameters, respectively, which ultimately leads to an increase in the number of drier events, whereas a contradictory pattern is exhibited in the northwest Indian region (decrease in the number of dry days). The proposed index gives a potential framework for drought monitoring under the changing climate and can be extended to develop a multivariate nonstationary joint deficit index by incorporating other hydrological variables (e.g., soil moisture, diurnal temperature range, streamflow). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Normalized mutual information (NMI) is a nonparametric measure of the dependence between two variables without assumptions about the shape of their bivariate data distributions, but the implementation and interpretation of NMI in the coupled climate system is more complicated than for linear correlations. This study presents a joint approach combining correlation and NMI to examine land and ocean surface forcing of U.S. drought at varying lead times. Based on the distribution of correlation versus NMI between a source variable (local or remote forcing) and target variable [e.g., summer precipitation in the southern Great Plains (SGP)], newly proposed one-tail significance levels for NMI combined with two-tailed significance levels of correlation enable us to discern linearity and nonlinearity dominant regimes in a more intuitive way. Our analysis finds that NMI can detect strong linear relationships like correlations, but it is not exclusively tuned to linear relationships as correlations are. Also, NMI can further identify nonlinear relationships, particularly when there are clusters and blank areas (high density and low density) in joint probability distributions between source and target variables (e.g., detected between soil moisture conditions in eastern Montana from mid-February to mid-August and summer precipitation in the SGP). The linear and nonlinear information are found to be sometimes mixed and rather convoluted with time, for instance, in the subtropical Pacific of the Southern Hemisphere, revealing relationships that cannot be fully detected by either NMI or correlation alone. Therefore, this joint approach is a potentially powerful tool to reveal complex and heretofore undetected relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the roles of land surface conditions and atmospheric circulation on continental daily temperature variance is key to improving predictions of temperature extremes. Evaporative resistance (rs, hereafter), a function of the land cover type, reflects the ease with which water can be evaporated or transpired and is a strong control on land–atmosphere interactions. This study explores the effects of rs perturbations on summer daily temperature variance using the Simple Land Interface Model (SLIM) by mimicking, for rs only, a global land cover conversion from forest to crop/grassland. Decreasing rs causes a global cooling. The cooling is larger in wetter areas and weaker in drier areas, and primarily results from perturbations in shortwave radiation (SW) and latent heat flux (LH). Decreasing rs enhances cloud cover due to greater land surface evaporation and thus reduces incoming SW over most land areas. When rs decreases, wetter areas experience strong evaporative cooling, while drier areas become more moisture-limited and thus experience less cooling. Thermal advection further shapes the temperature response by damping the combined impacts of SW and LH. Temperature variance increases in drier areas and decreases in wetter areas as rs decreases. The temperature variance changes can be largely explained from changes in the combined variance of SW and LH, including an important contribution of changes in the covariance of SW and LH. In contrast, the effects of changes in thermal advection variance mainly affect the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes. Significance Statement: This study aims to better understand processes governing daily near-surface air temperature variance over land. We use an idealized modeling framework to explore the effects of land surface evaporative resistance (a parameter that controls how hard it is to evaporate water from the surface) on summer daily temperature variance. We find that a uniform decrease of evaporative resistance across the global land surface causes changes in the temperature variance that can be predicted from changes in the combined variance of shortwave radiation and latent heat flux. The variance of horizontal advection is important in altering the temperature variance in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes. Our findings shed light on predicting the characteristics of temperature variability as a function of surface conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil moisture (SM) during the vegetation growing season largely affects plant transpiration and photosynthesis, and further alters the land energy and water balance through its impact on the energy partition into latent and sensible heat fluxes. To highlight the impact of strong vegetation activity, we investigate global SM–climate interactions over the peak growing season (PGS) during 1982–2015 based on multisource datasets. Results suggest widespread positive SM–precipitation (P), SM–evapotranspiration (ET), and negative SM–temperature (T) interactions with non-negligible negative SM–P, SM–ET, and positive SM–T interactions over PGS. Relative to the influence of individual climate factors on SM, the compounding effect of climate factors strengthens SM–climate interactions. Simultaneously, variations of SM are dominated by precipitation from 50°N toward the south, by evapotranspiration from 50°N toward the north, and by temperature over the Sahara, western and central Asia, and the Tibetan Plateau. Importantly, the higher probability of concurrent SM wetness and climate extremes indicates the instant response of SM wetness to extreme climate. In contrast, the resistance of vegetation partially contributes to a consequent slower response of SM dryness to extreme climate. We highlight the significance of the compounding effects of climate factors in understanding SM–climate interaction in the context of strong vegetation activity, and the response of SM wetness and dryness to climate extremes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In northern Australia (NAUS), mean rainfall during the Australian summer monsoon (AUSM) season exhibits distinct interannual variability despite weak influence from tropical sea surface temperature (SST) variability. The present study investigates mechanisms for the strong and persistent rainfall anomalies throughout the AUSM season. When the AUSM is stronger than normal, the low-level monsoonal circulation intensifies in response to the stronger convective activity over NAUS. The intensified surface westerlies over the tropical southeastern Indian Ocean (SEIO) enhance oceanic evaporation locally and downstream moisture transport into NAUS. This wind–evaporation feedback is verified through a moist static energy budget analysis. For this feedback to work effectively, SST cooling due to the stronger AUSM should be weak enough not to suppress the oceanic evaporation in the tropical SEIO. Our mixed layer heat budget analysis based on an ocean model hindcast experiment reveals that anomalous downwelling in the subsurface SEIO, which is induced dynamically by the intensified monsoon westerlies, partially offsets the SST cooling. The land surface evaporation over the continental inland area is also enhanced significantly in the middle and later portions of the monsoon season associated with increased soil moisture, suggesting its memory effect for the persistence of rainfall anomalies. The AUSM variability can therefore be regarded as a self-sustaining internal variability in the atmosphere–ocean–land surface coupled system, rather than just an atmospheric internal variability. Significance Statement: We aim to understand why summer monsoon rainfall in northern Australia varies markedly from one year to another even under the weak influence of large-scale sea surface temperature fluctuations, such as El Niño/La Niña. Our analyses based mainly on observational datasets reveal that wind-induced changes in oceanic evaporation south of Java significantly modulates the water vapor transport into northern Australia. We also find that ocean dynamics helps this wind–evaporation feedback process and continental soil moisture may act to prolong anomalous rainfall by its memory effect. This study shows the self-sustaining nature of the Australian summer monsoon variability under the atmosphere–ocean–land surface interactions, which deepens our understandings of the monsoon system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The land–atmosphere interactions play an important role in modulating climate variability at different spatial and temporal scales. In South America, two recognized hot spots of soil moisture–atmosphere coupling are located in southeastern South America (SESA) and eastern Brazil. Soil moisture variability may not only alter the climate locally but may also have nonlocal impacts through changes in the regional circulation. Here we explore how these two local coupling hot spots interact with each other, how soil moisture variability modulates the regional circulation, and what is the consequent nonlocal impact on precipitation. To this end, we analyze numerical experiments, performed with a regional climate model for the period October–March of 1983–2012, that allow us to isolate the influence of the soil moisture interannual variability on the regional climate. When the soil moisture–atmosphere interaction is enabled, we find a nonlocal coupling mechanism that links both hot spots at different temporal scales, favoring precipitation in eastern Brazil to the detriment of the precipitation in SESA through shifts in the regional circulation, when compared with a simulation with constrained soil moisture–atmosphere interaction. In northeastern Argentina, a subregion of SESA located at the exit of the South American low-level jet, it was found that the amount of nighttime precipitation is modulated by the proposed nonlocal coupling mechanism. A better understanding of the variability of precipitation due to the influence of land–atmosphere interaction processes may contribute to improving the predictability of precipitation and the interpretation of climate projections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

California is one of the nation's top agriculture producers and is vulnerable to extreme events such as droughts and heat waves. Concurrent extreme events may further stress water and energy resources, exerting greater adverse socioeconomic, environmental, and health impacts than individual events. Here we examine the features of compound drought, heat wave, and dust events in California during spring and summer. From 2003 to 2020, 16 compound events are found in warm seasons, with a mean duration of ∼4 days. Compound events are characterized by enhanced surface temperature up to 4.5°C over northern and western California, reduced soil moisture and vegetation density, and an increase in dust optical depth (DOD) by 0.05–0.1 over central and southern California. The enhanced DOD is largely associated with severe vegetation dieback that favors dust emissions and southeasterly wind anomalies that support northward transport of dust from source regions in southern California. Surface fine dust and PM2.5 concentrations also increase by more than 0.5 and 5 μg m−3, respectively, during compound events associated with both enhanced dust emissions and a relatively stable atmosphere that traps pollutants. The development of the compound events is related to an anomalous high over the west coast in the lower to middle troposphere, which is a pattern favoring sinking motion and dry conditions in California. The anomalous high is embedded in a wave train that develops up to 7 days before the events. In comparison with heat wave extremes alone, compound events show significantly higher DOD and lower vegetation density associated with droughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme heat events are a threat to human health, productivity, and food supply, so understanding their drivers is critical to adaptation and resilience. Anticyclonic circulation and certain quasi-stationary Rossby wave patterns are well known to coincide with heatwaves, and soil moisture deficits amplify extreme heat in some regions. However, the relative roles of these two factors in causing heatwaves is still unclear. Here we use constructed circulation analogs to estimate the contribution of atmospheric circulation to heatwaves in the United States in the Community Earth System Model version 1 (CESM1) preindustrial control simulations. After accounting for the component of the heatwaves explained by circulation, we explore the relationship between the residual temperature anomalies and soil moisture. We find that circulation explains over 85% of heatwave temperature anomalies in the eastern and western United States but only 75%–85% in the central United States. In this region, there is a significant negative correlation between soil moisture the week before the heatwave and the strength of the heatwave that explains additional variance. Further, for the hottest central U.S. heatwaves, positive temperature anomalies and negative soil moisture anomalies are evident over a month before heatwave onset. These results provide evidence that positive land–atmosphere feedbacks may be amplifying heatwaves in the central United States and demonstrate the geographic heterogeneity in the relative importance of the land and atmosphere for heatwave development. Analysis of future circulation and soil moisture in the CESM1 Large Ensemble indicates that, over parts of the United States, both may be trending toward greater heatwave likelihood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The representation of groundwater dynamics in land surface models and their roles in global precipitation variations has received attention in recent years. Studies have revealed the overall higher soil moisture but rather diverse precipitation changes after incorporating the groundwater component in climate models. However, groundwater effects on large-scale atmospheric energy transport, the fundamental atmospheric variable regulating Earth's climate, have not been explored thoroughly. In this study, a pair of idealized experiments corresponding to contrast globally fixed water table depths by AMIP-type simulations in the Community Earth System Model was conducted. In the wet (shallow water table) experiments, an increased meridional surface temperature gradient makes the mean meridional energy transports and Hadley circulation stronger than dry (deep water table) experiments over the tropics. Such energy transport changes are primarily attributed to the dynamic contribution (intensified Hadley circulation). The wet experiments make the simulated world be like an aquaplanet simulation with less land–sea temperature contrast and the enhancement (reduction) of mean meridional circulation (stationary eddies) energy transports. Furthermore, the South Asian monsoon circulation in the wet experiment shows a southward shift in the premonsoon season (April–June) and slight weakening in the mature phase (July and August). This study explores the impacts of the soil conditions caused by various water table depths on global energy transport and has further implications for climate model developments and experiment designs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is a major natural hazard with far-reaching social, economic, and environmental impacts whose characteristics are highly interdependent across different spatial and temporal scales. Traditional global warming impact assessments on drought at the global scale have, however, taken into account only one drought characteristic at a time, likely leading to an underestimation of the overall impact. Here, we perform a trivariate analysis of changes in drought conditions at 1.5°, 2°, and 3°C global warming levels using 25 CMIP6 GCMs. Drought properties are characterized by the Standardized Soil Moisture Index (SSI). The future joint return periods of droughts historically associated with 10-, 20-, and 30-yr return periods are computed under the warming levels using copula functions considering drought duration, peak, and severity. Our comparative assessments of global warming impact on drought properties between univariate and trivariate analyses corroborate the substantial underestimation of the impact by the univariate analysis. The trivariate analysis shows that around 63%–91% of the global land will be subject to more recurrent droughts, while the percentage of the land reduces to 41%–56% for the univariate analysis. The difference between the univariate and trivariate analyses enlarges with global warming levels and the extremity of drought events. Based on the trivariate analysis, a 30-yr drought would become at least threefold more recurrent in 11%, 15%, and 20% of the global land at 1.5°, 2°, and 3°C warming levels, respectively, but the univariate analysis could not reach such large increases in drought conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seasonal cycle contributes substantially to soil moisture temporal variability in many parts of the world, with important implications for seasonal forecasting relevant to agriculture and the health of humans and ecosystems. There is considerable spatial variability in the seasonal cycle of soil moisture, yet a lack of global observations has hindered the development of parsimonious theories explaining that variability. Here, we use 6 years of global satellite observations to describe and explain the seasonal cycle of surface soil moisture globally. An unsupervised clustering algorithm is used to identify five distinct seasonal cycle regimes. Each seasonal cycle regime typically arises in both hemispheres, on multiple continents, and across substantially different local climates. To explain this spatial variability, we then show that the observed seasonal cycle regimes are reproduced very well by a simple but physically based water balance model, which only uses precipitation and downwelling surface shortwave radiation as inputs, and includes no free parameters. Surprisingly, no information on vegetation or land cover is required. To our knowledge, this is the first characterization of the seasonal cycle of surface soil moisture based on global observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study shows that the frequency of North American summertime (June–August) heat extremes is skillfully predicted several months in advance in the newly developed Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) Seamless System for Prediction and Earth System Research (SPEAR) seasonal forecast system. Using a statistical optimization method, the average predictability time, we identify three large-scale components of the frequency of North American summer heat extremes that are predictable with significant correlation skill. One component, which is related to a secular warming trend, shows a continent-wide increase in the frequency of summer heat extremes and is highly predictable at least 9 months in advance. This trend component is likely a response to external radiative forcing. The second component is largely driven by the sea surface temperatures in the North Pacific and North Atlantic and is significantly correlated with the central U.S. soil moisture. The second component shows largest loadings over the central United States and is significantly predictable 9 months in advance. The third component, which is related to the central Pacific El Niño, displays a dipole structure over North America and is predictable up to 4 months in advance. Potential implications for advancing seasonal predictions of North American summertime heat extremes are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme weather events are triggered by atmospheric circulation patterns and shaped by slower components, including soil moisture and sea surface temperature, and by the background climate. This separation of factors is exploited by the storyline approach in which an atmospheric model is nudged toward the observed dynamics using different climate boundary conditions to explore their influence. The storyline approach disregards uncertain climatic changes in the frequency and intensity of dynamical conditions, focusing instead on the thermodynamic influence of climate on extreme events. Here we demonstrate an advanced storyline approach that employs a coupled climate model (AWI-CM-1-1-MR) in which the large-scale free-troposphere dynamics are nudged toward ERA5 data. Five-member ensembles are run for present-day (2017–19), preindustrial, +2-K, and +4-K climates branching off from CMIP6 historical and scenario simulations of the same model. In contrast to previous studies, which employed atmosphere-only models, feedbacks between extreme events and the ocean and sea ice state, and the dependence of such feedbacks on the climate, are consistently simulated. Our setup is capable of reproducing observed anomalies of relevant unconstrained parameters, including near-surface temperature, cloud cover, soil moisture, sea surface temperature, and sea ice concentration. Focusing on the July 2019 European heat wave, we find that the strongest warming amplification expands from southern to central Europe over the course of the twenty-first century. The warming reaches up to 10 K in the 4-K-warmer climate, suggesting that an analogous event would entail peak temperatures around 50°C in central Europe. Significance Statement: This work explores a new storyline method to determine the impact of climate change on specific recent extreme events. The observed evolution of the large-scale atmospheric circulation is imposed in a coupled climate model. Variations in climate parameters, including ocean temperatures and sea ice, are well reproduced. By varying the background climate, including CO2 concentrations, it is demonstrated how the July 2019 European heat wave could have evolved in preindustrial times and in warmer climates. For example, up to 10°C warmer peak temperatures could occur in central Europe in a 4°C warmer climate. The method should be explored for other types of extreme events and has the potential to make climate change more tangible and to inform adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diagnosis of rapidly developing springtime droughts in the central United States has mostly been made via numerous individual case studies rather than in an aggregate sense. This study investigates common aspects of subseasonal "meteorological drought" evolution, here defined as persistent precipitation minus evapotranspiration (P − ET) deficits, revealed in early (1 April–15 May) and late (16 May–30 June) spring composites of 5-day running mean JRA-55 reanalysis data for three different central U.S. regions during 1958–2018. On average, these droughts are initiated by a quasi-stationary Rossby wave packet (RWP), propagating from the western North Pacific, which arises about a week prior to drought onset. The RWP is related to a persistent ridge west of the incipient drought region and strong subsidence over it. This subsidence is associated with low-level divergent flow that dries the atmosphere and suppresses precipitation for roughly 1–2 weeks, and generally has a greater impact on the local moisture budget than does reduced poleward moisture transport. The resulting "dynamically driven" evaporative demand corresponds to a rapid drying of the root-zone soil moisture, which decreases around 40 percentiles within about 10 days. Anomalous near-surface warmth develops only after the P − ET deficit onset, as does anomalously low soil moisture that then lingers a month or more, especially in late spring. The horizontal scale of the RWPs, and of the related drought anomalies, decreases from early to late spring, consistent with the climatological change in the Pacific Rossby waveguide. Finally, while this composite analysis is based upon strong, persistent P − ET deficits, it still appears to capture much of the springtime development of "flash droughts" as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyze observations and develop a hierarchy of models to understand heat waves—long-lived, high temperature anomalies—and extremely high daily temperatures during summertime in the continental extratropics. Throughout the extratropics, the number of extremely hot days found in the three hottest months is much greater than expected from a random, single-process model. Furthermore, in many locations the temperature skewness switches from negative on daily time scales to positive on monthly time scales (or shifts from positive on daily time scales to higher positive values on monthly time scales) in ways that cannot be explained by averaging alone. These observations motivate a hierarchy of models of the surface energy and moisture budgets that we use to illuminate the physics responsible for daily and monthly averaged temperature variability. Shortwave radiation fluctuations drive much of the variance and the negative skewness found in daily temperature observations. On longer time scales, precipitation-induced soil moisture anomalies are important for temperature variability and account for the shift toward positive skewness in monthly averaged temperature. Our results demonstrate that long-lived heat waves are due to (i) the residence time of soil moisture anomalies and (ii) a nonlinear feedback between temperature and evapotranspiration via the impact of temperature on vapor pressure deficit. For most climates, these two processes give rise to infrequent, long-lived heat waves in response to randomly distributed precipitation forcing. Combined with our results concerning high-frequency variability, extremely hot days are seen to be state-independent filigree driven by shortwave variability acting on top of longer-lived, moisture-driven heat waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is projected to become more severe and widespread as global warming continues in the twenty-first century, but hydroclimatic changes and their drivers are not well examined in the latest projections from phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6). Here, precipitation (P), evapotranspiration (E), soil moisture (SM), and runoff (R) from 25 CMIP6 models, together with self-calibrated Palmer drought severity index with Penman–Monteith potential evapotranspiration (scPDSIpm), are analyzed to quantify hydroclimatic and drought changes in the twenty-first century and the underlying causes. Results confirm consistent drying in these hydroclimatic metrics across most of the Americas (including the Amazon), Europe and the Mediterranean region, southern Africa, and Australia, although the drying magnitude differs, with the drying being more severe and widespread in surface SM than in total SM. Global drought frequency based on surface SM and scPDSIpm increases by ∼25%–100% (50%–200%) under the SSP2-4.5 (SSP5-8.5) scenario in the twenty-first century together with large increases in drought duration and areas, which result from a decrease in the mean and flattening of the probability distribution functions of SM and scPDSIpm, while the R-based drought changes are relatively small. Changes in both P and E contribute to the SM change, whereas scPDSIpm decreases result from ubiquitous PET increases and P decreases over subtropical areas. The R changes are determined primarily by P changes, while the PET change explains most of the E increase. Intermodel spreads in surface SM and R changes are large, leading to large uncertainties in the drought projections. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Drought may become more severe and widespread under greenhouse gas (GHG)-induced global warming in the twenty-first century based on model projections. However, there are still large uncertainties in projected future drought changes, especially regarding the extent to which drought changes depend on drought indices and the future emissions scenarios analyzed. The latest projections from CMIP6 models reaffirm the widespread drying and increases in agricultural drought by up to 200% over most of the Americas (including the Amazon), Europe and the Mediterranean region, southern Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australia under moderate-to-high emissions scenarios in the twenty-first century, despite large uncertainties in individual projections partly due to internal variability. Ubiquitous increases in atmospheric demand for moisture under rising temperatures and precipitation decreases over many subtropical regions are the main driver of the projected drying and drought increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employs multiple reanalysis datasets to evaluate the global shallow and deep soil moisture in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) simulations. The multimodel ensemble mean produces generally reasonable simulations for overall climatology, wet and dry centers, and annual peaks in the melt season at mid- to high latitudes and the rainy season at low latitudes. The simulation capability for shallow soil moisture depends on the relationship between soil moisture and the difference between precipitation and evaporation (P − E). Although most models produce effective simulations in regions where soil moisture is significantly related to the P − E (e.g., Europe, low-latitude Asia, and the Southern Hemisphere), considerable discrepancies between simulated conditions and reanalysis data occur at high elevations and latitudes (e.g., Siberia and the Tibetan Plateau), where cold-season processes play a driving role in soil moisture variability. These discrepancies reflect the lack of information concerning the thaw of snow and frozen ground in the reanalyzed data and the inability of models to simulate these processes. The models also perform poorly in areas of extreme aridity. On a global scale, the majority of models provide consistent and capable simulations owing to the minimal variability in deep soil moisture and limited observational information in reanalysis data. Models with higher spatial resolution do not exhibit closer agreement with the reanalysis data, indicating that spatial resolution is not the first limiting factor for CMIP6 soil moisture simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The land surface is a potential source of climate predictability over the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes but has received less attention than sea surface temperature in this regard. This study quantified the degree to which realistic land initialization contributes to interannual climate predictability over Europe based on a coupled climate system model named FGOALS-g2. The potential predictability provided by the initialization, which incorporates the soil moisture and soil temperature of a land surface reanalysis product into the coupled model with a dimension-reduced projection four-dimensional variational data assimilation (DRP-4DVar)-based weakly coupled data assimilation (WCDA) system, was analyzed first. The effective predictability (i.e., prediction skill) of the hindcasts by FGOALS-g2 with realistic and well-balanced initial conditions from the initialization were then evaluated. Results show an enhanced interannual prediction skill for summer surface air temperature and precipitation in the hindcast over Europe, demonstrating the potential benefit from realistic land initialization. This study highlights the significant contributions of land surface to interannual predictability of summer climate over Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Future projections of precipitation change over tropical land are often enhanced by vegetation responses to CO2 forcing in Earth system models. Projected decreases in rainfall over the Amazon basin and increases over the Maritime Continent are both stronger when plant physiological changes are modeled than if these changes are neglected, but the reasons for this amplification remain unclear. The responses of vegetation to increasing CO2 levels are complex and uncertain, including possible decreases in stomatal conductance and increases in leaf area index due to CO2 fertilization. Our results from an idealized atmospheric general circulation model show that the amplification of rainfall changes occurs even when we use a simplified vegetation parameterization based solely on CO2-driven decreases in stomatal conductance, indicating that this mechanism plays a key role in complex model projections. Based on simulations with rectangular continents we find that reducing terrestrial evaporation to zero with increasing CO2 notably leads to enhanced rainfall over a narrow island. Strong heating and ascent over the island trigger moisture advection from the surrounding ocean. In contrast, over larger continents rainfall depends on continental evaporation. Simulations with two rectangular continents representing South America and Africa reveal that the stronger decrease in rainfall over the Amazon basin seen in Earth system models is due to a combination of local and remote effects, which are fundamentally connected to South America's size and its location with respect to Africa. The response of tropical rainfall to changes in evapotranspiration is thus connected to size and configuration of the continents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three sets of model experiments are performed with the Community Earth System Model to study the role of soil moisture anomalies as a boundary forcing for the formation of upper-level Rossby wave patterns during the Southern Hemisphere summer. In the experiments, soil moisture over Australia is set to ±1 standard deviation (STD) of an ERA-Interim-derived soil moisture reconstruction for the years 2009–16 and 50 ensemble members are run. The local response is a positive heating anomaly in the dry simulations that results in a thermal low–like circulation anomaly with an anomalous surface low and upper-level anticyclone. Significant differences in convective rainfall over Australia are related to differences in convective instability and associated with changes in near-surface moisture and moisture advection patterns. A circum-hemispheric flow response is identified both in the upper-level flow and in the surface storm tracks that overall resembles a positive southern annular mode–like flow anomaly in the dry simulations. The structure of this atmospheric response strongly depends on the background flow. The results point to a modulation of the hemispheric flow response to the forcing over Australia by El Niño–Southern Oscillation. Significant changes of precipitation over the Maritime Continent and South Africa are found and significant differences in the frequency of surface cyclones are present all along the storm tracks. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: We demonstrate significant effects of soil moisture anomalies in Australia on local and remote atmospheric conditions in the Community Earth System Model. For this, we run three experiments with soil moisture set to dry, climatological, and wet conditions in Australia. In the dry experiment, near-surface temperature is significantly warmer and surface pressure is significantly lower over Australia. Convective precipitation changes as well and the spatial pattern of the precipitation response is influenced by changes in moisture transport. Significant anomalies in the upper-level height field are present around the hemisphere along the upper-level jet waveguides and storm-track position and strength are modulated. The results have potential applications in seasonal forecasting and implications for the interpretation of climate change simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the summer, the midwestern United States, which covers the main U.S. corn belt, has a net loss of surface water as evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. The net moisture gain into the atmosphere is transported out of the region to the northern high latitudes through transient eddy moisture fluxes. How this process may change in the future is not entirely clear despite the fact that the corn-belt region is responsible for a large portion of the global supply of corn and soybeans. We find that increased CO2 and the associated warming increase evapotranspiration while precipitation reduces in the region, leading to further reduction in precipitation minus evaporation in the future. At the same time, the poleward transient moisture flux increases, leading to enhanced atmospheric moisture export from the corn-belt region. However, storm-track intensity is generally weakened in the summer because of a reduced north–south temperature gradient associated with amplified warming in the midlatitudes. The intensified transient eddy moisture transport as the storm track weakens can be reconciled by the stronger mean moisture gradient in the future. This is found to be caused by the climatological low-level jet transporting more moisture into the Great Plains region as a result of the thermodynamic mechanism under warmer conditions. Our results, for the first time, show that in the future the U.S. Midwest corn belt will experience more hydrological stress due to intensified transient eddy moisture export, leading to drier soils in the region. Significance Statement: The U.S. corn belt has dominated corn production in the United States since the 1850s, accounting for more than one-third of the global supply of corn, and is the world's largest source of soybeans. Yet how the region's hydroclimate responds to future climate change is still unclear. Here we found that increased CO2 and the associated warming increase evapotranspiration that takes more moisture out of the soil, thus leading to a drying effect. At the same time, the storms are becoming weaker and are shifted northward, leading to less precipitation in the corn-belt region. The excess moisture from the evapotranspiration is transported out of the corn-belt region by eddies. These processes together contribute to the corn belt's increased hydrological stress in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of Eurasian spring snowmelt on surface air temperature (SAT) in late spring (April-May) and early summer (June-July) and the relevant physical mechanisms during 1981-2016 are investigated. Results show that the first mode of the interannual Eurasian spring snowmelt represents an east-west dipole anomaly pattern, with an intense center over Siberia and another moderate center around eastern Europe. The European spring snowmelt shows an insignificant relation to the local SAT, whereas the Siberian spring snowmelt has a significant impact on the SAT in late spring and early summer. More Siberian spring snowmelt contributes to higher SAT in late spring and lower SAT in early summer via different mechanisms. In late spring, increased Siberian spring snowmelt corresponds to less local surface albedo and cloud cover, leading to the surface absorbing more shortwave radiation and thereby higher SAT. The subsurface and deep soil moisture anomalies generated from Siberian spring snowmelt can persist into early summer. Excessive Siberian spring snowmelt corresponds to positive soil moisture anomalies, contributing to decreased sensible heat and increased cloud cover in early summer. Increased cloud cover leads to the surface receiving less shortwave radiation. Thus, lower SAT appears over Siberia in early summer due to reduced sensible heat and shortwave radiation. However, the simulation of Eurasian spring snowmelt variability and its influences on SAT via the snow hydrological effect is still a challenge for the climate models that participated in phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fire-emitted aerosols play an important role in influencing Earth’s climate, directly by scattering and absorbing radiation and indirectly by influencing cloud microphysics. The quantification of fire–aerosol interactions, however, remains challenging and subject to uncertainties in emissions, plume parameterizations, and aerosol properties. Here we optimized fire-associated aerosol emissions in the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) using the Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED) and AERONET aerosol optical depth (AOD) observations during 1997–2016. We distributed fire emissions vertically using smoke plume heights from Multiangle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) satellite observations. From the optimization, we estimate that global fires emit 45.5 Tg yr-1 of primary particulate organic matter and 3.9 Tg yr-1 of black carbon. We then performed two climate simulations with and without the optimized fire emissions. We find that fire aerosols significantly increase global AOD by 14% ± 7% and contribute to a reduction in net shortwave radiation at the surface (-2.3 ± 0.5 Wm-2). Together, fire-induced direct and indirect aerosol effects cause annual mean global land surface air temperature to decrease by 0.17° ± 0.15°C, relative humidity to increase by 0.4% ± 0.3%, and diffuse light fraction to increase by 0.5% ± 0.3%. In response, GPP declines by 2.8 Pg C yr-1 as a result of large positive drivers (decreases in temperature and increases in humidity and diffuse light), nearly cancelling out large negative drivers (decreases in shortwave radiation and soil moisture). Our analysis highlights the importance of fire aerosols in modifying surface climate and photosynthesis across the tropics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heat waves such as the one in Europe 2003 have severe consequences for the economy, society, and ecosystems. It is unclear whether temperatures could have exceeded these anomalies even without further climate change. Developing storylines and quantifying the highest possible temperature levels is challenging given the lack of a long homogeneous time series and methodological framework to assess them. Here, we address this challenge by analyzing summer temperatures in a nearly 5000-yr preindustrial climate model simulation, performed with the Community Earth System Model CESM1. To assess how anomalous temperatures could get, we compare storylines generated by three different methods: 1) a return-level estimate, deduced from a generalized extreme value distribution; 2) a regression model, based on dynamic and thermodynamic heat wave drivers; and 3) a novel ensemble boosting method, generating large samples of reinitialized extreme heat waves in the long climate simulation. All methods provide consistent temperature estimates, suggesting that historical exceptional heat waves such as those in Chicago in 1995, Europe in 2003, and Russia in 2010 could have been substantially exceeded even in the absence of further global warming. These estimated unseen heat waves are caused by the same drivers as moderate observed events, but with more anomalous patterns. Moreover, altered contributions of circulation and soil moisture to temperature anomalies include amplified feedbacks in the surface energy budget. The methodological framework of combining different storyline approaches of heat waves with magnitudes beyond the observational record may ultimately contribute to adaptation and to the stress testing of ecosystems or socioeconomic systems to increase resilience to extreme climate stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evidence shows that soil moisture has an important influence on North American monsoon (NAM) precipitation. This study evaluates the local and nonlocal feedbacks of soil moisture on summer (June–September) precipitation in the NAM region using observational data. We applied a multivariate statistical method known as the Stepwise Generalized Equilibrium Feedback Assessment (SGEFA) to control for internal atmospheric variability and sea surface temperature (SST) forcings so that we could isolate the impact of soil moisture feedbacks on NAM precipitation. Our results identify feedback pathways between soil moisture and precipitation in the NAM region and in the southern Rocky Mountains (SRM) region. Wet soils in the SRM result in lower-than-normal local surface temperature, weaker water vapor transport from the eastern Pacific and the Gulf of California (GOC), and less monsoon precipitation. Precipitation over the U.S. Great Plains also significantly increases when there are wet soils in the SRM. This occurs due to an enhanced water vapor influx into this region. On the other hand, anomalously wet soils in the NAM region increase NAM precipitation by enhancing local moist static energy and increasing the strength of the monsoonal circulation. Our observational results using SGEFA agree well with previous numerical modeling studies. This study highlights the critical role of land–atmosphere interactions for understanding NAM variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El Niño is a dominant source of interannual climate variability around the world. Based on the observed and reanalyzed datasets for the period of 1958–2019, this study explores the influence of El Niño on the spring precipitation over the Indochina Peninsula (ICP). The results show that El Niño has a significant negative correlation with the following spring precipitation over the ICP. However, this climatic teleconnection of El Niño was unstable, with an obvious interdecadal strengthening since the early 1990s. During the decaying spring, the El Niño–related sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies would induce an abnormal downward motion along with an anomalous low-level anticyclone over the western North Pacific. Before the early 1990s, such El Niño–induced atmospheric circulation anomalies were located to the east of the ICP, exerting little influence on the spring ICP precipitation. In contrast, since the early 1990s, the abnormal downward motion and anomalous low-level anticyclone extended westward covering the whole ICP, hampering local spring precipitation. This interdecadal change is owing to a relatively stronger intensity and longer duration of the El Niño–related warm SST anomalies over the tropical central Pacific in the epoch after the early 1990s (1992–2019) than in the previous decades (1958–91). Our findings highlight a strengthening effect of El Niño on the following spring climate over the ICP since the early 1990s, which has great implications for the regional climate prediction. Significance Statement: Spring precipitation variation has profound economic and societal influences for the Indochina Peninsula (ICP) that consists of several agriculture-based countries. Moreover, the local soil moisture anomaly induced by the ICP spring precipitation is an important seasonal predictor for the East Asian summer monsoon and extreme climate. Here this study identifies a strengthening influence of El Niño on the following spring precipitation over the ICP, due to a relatively stronger intensity and longer duration of the El Niño–related warm SST anomalies over the tropical central Pacific since the early 1990s. This may provide an important implication for the seasonal predictions of summer monsoon and extreme climate over East Asia and thus potentially enhance the predictability of regional climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skillful subseasonal prediction of extreme heat and precipitation greatly benefits multiple sectors, including water management, public health, and agriculture, in mitigating the impact of extreme events. A statistical model is developed to predict the weekly frequency of extreme warm days and 14-day standardized precipitation index (SPI) during boreal summer in the United States. We use a leading principal component of U.S. soil moisture and an index based on the North Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) as predictors. The model outperforms the NCEP Climate Forecast System, version 2 (CFSv2), at weeks 3–4 in the eastern United States. It is found that the North Pacific SST anomalies persist for several weeks and are associated with a persistent wave train pattern, which leads to increased occurrences of blocking and extreme temperature over the eastern United States. Extreme dry soil moisture conditions persist into week 4 and are associated with an increase in sensible heat flux and a decrease in latent heat flux, which may help to maintain the overlying anticyclone. The clear-sky conditions associated with blocking anticyclones further decrease soil moisture and increase the frequency of extreme warm days. This skillful statistical model has the potential to aid in irrigation scheduling, crop planning, and reservoir operation and to provide mitigation of impacts from extreme heat events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil moisture–atmosphere interactions are key elements of the regional climate system. There is a well-founded hope that a more accurate representation of the soil moisture–precipitation feedback would improve the simulation of summer precipitation on daily to seasonal, to climate time scales. However, uncertainties have persistently remained as the simulated feedback is strongly sensitive to the model representation of deep convection. Here we assess the feedback representation using a GPU-accelerated version of the regional climate model COSMO. We simulate and compare the impact of continental-scale springtime soil moisture anomalies on summer precipitation at convection-resolving (2.2 km) and convection-parameterizing resolution (12 km). We conduct reanalysis-driven simulations of 10 summer seasons (1999–2008) in continental Europe. While both simulations qualitatively agree on a positive sign of soil moisture–induced precipitation, they strongly differ in precipitation frequency: when convection is parameterized, wetter soil predominantly leads to more frequent precipitation events, and when convection is treated explicitly, they primarily become more intense. The results indicate that the sensitivity to soil moisture is stronger with parameterized convection, suggesting that the land surface–atmosphere coupling may be overestimated. In addition, the feedback's sensitivity in complex terrain is assessed for soil perturbations of different horizontal scales. The convection-resolving simulations confirm a negative feedback for subcontinental soil moisture anomalies, which manifests itself in a local decrease of wet-hour frequency. However, the intensity feedback reinforces precipitation events at the same time (positive feedback). The two processes are represented differently in simulations with explicit and parameterized convection, explaining much of the difference between the two simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Persistent drought events that cause serious damage to the economy and environment are usually intensified by the feedback between the land surface and atmosphere. Therefore, reasonably modeling land–atmosphere coupling is critical for skillful prediction of persistent droughts. However, most high-resolution regional climate modeling has focused on the amplification effect of land–atmosphere coupling on local anticyclonic circulation anomalies, while less attention has been paid to the nonlocal influence through altering large-scale atmospheric circulation. Here we investigate how the antecedent land–atmosphere coupling over the area south of Lake Baikal (ASLB) influences the drought events occurring over its downstream region [i.e., Northeast China (NEC)] by using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model and a linear baroclinic model (LBM). When the ASLB region is artificially forced to be wet in the WRF simulations during March–May, the surface sensible heating is weakened and results in a cooling anomaly in low level atmosphere during May–July. Consequently, the anticyclonic circulation anomalies over ASLB and NEC are weakened, and the severity of NEC drought during May–July cannot be captured due to the upstream wetting in March–May. In the LBM experiments, idealized atmospheric heating anomaly that mimics the diabatic heating associated with surface wetness is imposed over ASLB, and the quasi-steady response pattern of 500-hPa geopotential height to the upstream wetting is highly consistent with that in the WRF simulation. In addition, the lower-level heating instead of the upper-level cooling makes a major contribution to the high pressure anomaly over NEC. This study implies the critical role of modeling upstream land–atmosphere coupling in capturing downstream persistent droughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses sea surface salinity (SSS) as an additional precursor for improving the prediction of summer [December–February (DJF)] rainfall over northeastern Australia. From a singular value decomposition between SSS of prior seasons and DJF rainfall, we note that SSS of the Indo-Pacific warm pool region [SSSP (150°E–165°W and 10°S–10°N) and SSSI (50°–95°E and 10°S–10°N)] covaries with Australian rainfall, particularly in the northeast region. Composite analysis that is based on high or low SSS events in the SSSP and SSSI regions is performed to understand the physical links between the SSS and the atmospheric moisture originating from the regions of anomalously high or low, respectively, SSS and precipitation over Australia. The composites show the signature of co-occurring La Niña and negative Indian Ocean dipole with anomalously wet conditions over Australia and conversely show the signature of co-occurring El Niño and positive Indian Ocean dipole with anomalously dry conditions there. During the high SSS events of the SSSP and SSSI regions, the convergence of incoming moisture flux results in anomalously wet conditions over Australia with a positive soil moisture anomaly. Conversely, during the low SSS events of the SSSP and SSSI regions, the divergence of incoming moisture flux results in anomalously dry conditions over Australia with a negative soil moisture anomaly. We show from the random-forest regression analysis that the local soil moisture, El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and SSSP are the most important precursors for the northeast Australian rainfall whereas for the Brisbane region ENSO, SSSP, and the Indian Ocean dipole are the most important. The prediction of Australian rainfall using random-forest regression shows an improvement by including SSS from the prior season. This evidence suggests that sustained observations of SSS can improve the monitoring of the Australian regional hydrological cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased heat-wave frequency across the United States has led to the need for improved predictability of heat-wave events. A detailed understanding of land–atmosphere interactions and the relationship between soil moisture and temperature extremes could provide useful information for prediction. This study identifies, for many locations, a threshold of soil moisture below which there is an increase in the sensitivity of atmospheric temperature to declining soil moisture. This shift to a hypersensitive regime causes the atmosphere to be more susceptible to atmospherically driven heat-wave conditions. The soil moisture breakpoint where the regime shift occurs is estimated using segmented regression applied to observations and reanalysis data. It is shown that as the soil gets drier, there is a concomitant change in the rate of decrease in latent heat flux and increase in sensible heat flux leading to a strong positive feedback of increased air temperature near the surface, which further dries out the soil. Central, southwestern, and southeastern parts of the United States seem to have regions of clear regime shifts, while the eastern part of the United States generally does not get dry enough to reveal significant breakpoints. Sensible heat flux is seen to be a primary driver of this increased temperature sensitivity aided by the drop in latent heat flux. An investigation of flux tower sites verifies the breakpoint–flux relationships found in reanalysis data. Accurate estimation of these breakpoints can contribute to improved heat-wave prediction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial intraseasonal precipitation variability is observed across the Tibetan Plateau (TP) during boreal summer associated with the subtropical jet location and the Silk Road pattern. Weather station data and satellite observations highlight a sensitivity of soil moisture and surface fluxes to this variability. During rain-free periods of two or more days, skin temperatures are shown to rise as the surface dries, signalling decreased evaporative fraction. Surface fluxes are further enhanced by relatively clear skies. In this study we use an atmospheric reanalysis to assess how this surface flux response across the TP influences local and remote conditions. Increased surface sensible heat flux induced by decreased soil moisture during a regional dry event leads to a deepening of the planetary boundary layer and the development of a heat low. Consistent with previous studies, heat low characteristics exhibit pronounced diurnal variability driven by anomalous daytime surface warming. For example, low-level horizontal winds are weakest during the afternoon and intensify overnight when boundary layer turbulence is minimal. The heat low favors an upper-tropospheric anticyclone that induces an upper-level Rossby wave and leads to negative upper-level temperature anomalies across southern China. The Rossby wave intensifies the upper-level cyclonic circulation across central China, while upper-level negative temperature anomalies across south China extend the west Pacific subtropical high westward. These circulation anomalies influence temperature and precipitation anomalies across much of China. The association between land–atmosphere interactions across the TP, large-scale atmospheric circulation characteristics, and precipitation in East Asia highlights the importance of intraseasonal soil moisture dynamics on the TP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the critical components in understanding the climate system is the interaction between the land and the atmosphere. Whereas previous studies on land–atmosphere coupling mostly focus on its spatial hotspots, we explore the temporal evolution of land surface coupling strength (LCS) during a large-scale flood event in a semiarid region in northern Australia. The LCS indicates the relationship between soil moisture and latent heat flux, and the spatiotemporal variability in precipitation and soil water strongly affects the variability of LCS. The LCS is usually positive in the semiarid climate, where evapotranspiration (ET) occurs under the soil moisture–limited regime and thus increases with soil moisture. However, our analyses of combined land surface modeling and observational datasets show high temporal variability of LCS in the course of the extreme flood event followed by a drying period. The wet regions transferred the ET regime from the soil moisture–limited to the transition section, weakening the linear growth of ET with soil moisture, which resulted in the decline of LCS. The LCS remained weak until the flood retreated and the soil water approached the prestorm average state. Such temporal variation of the LCS has important implications for realistic parameterization of the land–atmosphere coupling and consequently improving subseasonal to seasonal climate forecast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land-atmosphere interactions are often interpreted as local effects, whereby the soil state drives local atmospheric conditions and feedbacks originate. However, nonlocal mechanisms can significantly modulate land-atmosphere exchanges and coupling. We make use of GCMs at different resolutions (low ~1° and high ~0.25°) to separate the two contributions to coupling: better represented local processes versus the influence of improved large-scale circulation. We use a two-legged metric, complemented by a process-based assessment of four CMIP6 GCMs. Our results show that weakening, strengthening, and relocation of coupling hot spots occur at high resolution globally. The northward expansion of the Sahel hot spot, driven by nonlocal mechanisms, is the most notable change. The African easterly jet's horizontal wind shear is enhanced in JJA due to better resolved orography at high resolution. This effect, combined with enhanced easterly moisture flux, favors the development of African easterly waves over the Sahel. More precipitation and soil moisture recharge produce strengthening of the coupling, where evapotranspiration remains controlled by soil moisture, and weakening where evapotranspiration depends on atmospheric demand. In SON, the atmospheric influence is weaker, but soil memory helps to maintain the coupling between soil moisture and evapotranspiration and the relocation of the hot spot at high resolution. The multimodel agreement provides robust evidence that atmospheric dynamics determines the onset of land-atmosphere interactions, while the soil state modulates their duration. Comparison of precipitation, soil moisture, and evapotranspiration against satellite data reveals that the enhanced moistening at high resolution significantly reduces model biases, supporting the realism of the hot-spot relocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the Tibetan Plateau (TP) thermal processes is of utmost significance in changing climate. This study investigates the effect of soil moisture in changing the TP thermal profile and consequently summer precipitation in South Asia (SA). Soil moisture from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) developed from the F-08, F-11, and F-13 fundamental climate data record and atmospheric reanalysis from ERA-Interim, MERRA-2, and NCEP/CFSR during 1988–2008 are used. A generalized linear method that assesses the reciprocal forcing between two connected fields, named the coupled manifold technique (CMT), is applied to TP soil moisture and SA summer precipitation. It is revealed that interannual variations of SA precipitation are significantly (confidence level = 99%) impacted by TP soil moisture and the explained ratio of variance in SA is 0.3–0.4. Composite analysis indicates that SA summer precipitation has positive anomalies in response to dry TP soil moisture in the previous spring and vice versa. For understanding the possible mechanism, thermal processes, relative humidity, wind components, and moisture flux anomalies were calculated for dry and wet TP soil moisture and summer precipitation. The results suggested that TP soil moisture is likely to regulate near-surface energy balance and diabatic heating profile over TP. As a result, the surrounding lower-level westerlies (easterlies) (at 850 hPa) converge (diverge), associated with divergence (convergence) at the upper troposphere (200 hPa). The westerlies (easterlies) are usually moisture-rich (moisture-deficient) and thus cause more (less) precipitation in western (eastern) SA. It is thus suggested that the spring soil moisture may affect the thermal profile of TP, affecting the summer precipitation in SA as a consequence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seasonal prediction of precipitation extremes over the Yangtze River basin (YRB) has always been a great challenge. This study investigated the effects of spring soil moisture over the Indo-China Peninsula (ICP) on the following summer mei-yu front and YRB precipitation extremes during 1961-2010. The results indicated that the frequency of summer YRB precipitation extremes was closely associated with the mei-yu front intensity, which exhibited a strong negative correlation with the preceding spring ICP soil moisture. However, the lingering climate influence of the ICP soil moisture was unstable, with an obvious weakening since the early 1990s. Due to its strong memory, an abnormally lower spring soil moisture over the ICP would increase local temperature until the summer by inducing less evapotranspiration. Before the early 1990s, the geopotential height elevation associated with the ICP heating affected the western Pacific subtropical high (WPSH), strengthening the southwesterly summer monsoon. Consequently, the mei-yu front was intensified as more warm, wet air was transported to the YRB, and local precipitation extremes also occurred more frequently associated with abnormal ascending motion mainly maintained by the warm temperature advection. In the early 1990s, the Asian summer monsoon underwent an abrupt shift, with the changing climatological states of the large-scale circulations. Therefore, the similar ICP heating induced by the anomalous soil moisture had different effects on the monsoonal circulation, resulting in weakened responses of the mei-yu front and YRB precipitation extremes since the early 1990s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]