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Ten years ago, Spain was hit by a severe economic crisis (2009–2013), while the economy recovered in 2014. In the present study, the source changes of PM 10 from pre- and post-economic crisis to economic recovery were investigated using receptor model (Positive Matrix Factorization: PMF). PM 10 samples were collected during 2014 at six different sites in Andalusia, located in the southern Spain (1–7° W, 37–39° N). Seven source factors were identified as soil dust (17.9–34.8%), road traffic (12.2–25.9%), industrial emission (1.2–16.6%), oil combustion (0–16.1%), sea salt (5.0–15.7%), secondary nitrate (<0.05–30.4%) and secondary sulfate (4.4–15.1%). The soil dust source had the greatest influence on these six stations, followed by the road traffic source. The area was seriously affected by industrial pollution, even to the suburban and rural areas. Industry source contribution showed an increase trend from financial crisis periods to economic recovery, and the contribution in 2014 was even higher than pre-crisis level. As a result, the concentrations of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb, Cr and Ni) in the atmosphere were significant increased, thus enhanced their toxicity and health risks for people. The economic recovery after the financial crisis in Spain may be at the expense of emission control targets and air pollution. Image 1 • This work studied the particulate matter compositions and sources in Spain. • Seven source factors were identified by Positive Matrix Factorization model. • Soil dust had the greatest influence in study area, followed by road traffic source. • Industry contribution showed an increase trend from financial crisis to recovery. • Increased industry source resulted to the increases of the atmospheric heavy metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Construction materials affected by black crusts (BCs) can be subjected to restoration, demolition, recycling or even to their management as waste products. Therefore, the determination of their chemical features should be considered a crucial step before undertaking any action. In this work, we present the development of an analytical methodology useful to be implemented as a routine screening tool to detect recent and past atmospheric emissions of heavy metals, nowadays superficially deposited or even encapsulated in BCs. For its development, BCs together with the underneath original substrate/construction material were sampled from the historical construction Punta Begoña Galleries (Getxo, Basque Country, North of Spain). In order to detect quickly and in a cost-effective way the stratification of the metallic deposits in the BCs over time (surface or external/recent and internal/past), thin sections were analyzed by elemental spectroscopic imaging techniques (SEM-EDS and μ-ED-XRF). In the external part of the BCs, iron particles were mainly identified, whereas in the inner areas (past deposition events) of the most exposed BCs to the atmosphere, lead accumulations together with zinc and copper were identified. Additional Raman imaging studies allowed to perform the molecular speciation study of lead, identifying mainly laurionite (PbClOH) together with hydrocerussite (Pb 3 (CO 3) 2 (OH) 2). The presence of the mentioned lead chloride hydroxide confirms the role of the marine aerosol (chloride input) in the formation of the metallic compounds. These experimental evidences were used to assist the chemical equilibrium models developed to explain the reactivity pathway, which lead to the formation of the identified compounds. Through ICP-MS and lead isotopic ratio analysis, more than 3000 mg kg−1 of lead were quantified in the BCs, probably coming from the old emissions conducted by the old power station close to the construction,. That lead content can be high enough to consider those crusts as a source of metallic contamination and a possible risk to the environment and human health. • Black Crusts as information source of past/recent metals emissions to the atmosphere. • Thin sections and spectroscopic imaging techniques to reveal past emission events. • Rapid screening before applying more tedious methodologies (e.g. ICP-MS). • Inner Pb accumulations coming from the emissions of a power station of the 60's. • Oxidized Pb particles and Cl- (marine aerosol) reaction to form PbClOH (laureonite). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]