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Background: Regulatory problems (RPs; excessive crying, sleeping, or feeding difficulties) that co‐occur (i.e., multiple) or are persistent have been associated with cognitive and behavioral problems in childhood. However, it remains unknown if multiple or persistent RPs are associated with cognitive and behavioral problems in adulthood. Methods: This large prospective longitudinal study (N = 759) was conducted in two cohorts in Germany (N = 342) and Finland (N = 417). RPs were assessed at 5, 20, and 56 months via the same standardized parental interviews and neurological examinations. In young adulthood, questionnaires were used to assess behavioral problems. Cognitive functioning was assessed with IQ tests. We examined the effects of multiple or persistent RPs on the outcomes via analysis of covariance tests and logistic regression controlled for the influence of cohort. Results: Of 163 participants with RPs, 89 had multiple and 77 had persistent RPs. Adults who had early multiple or persistent RPs (N = 151) reported more internalizing (p =.001), externalizing (p =.020), and total behavioral problems (p =.001), and, specifically, more depressive (p =.012), somatic (p =.005), avoidant personality (p <.001), and antisocial personality problems (p =.006) than those who never had RPs (N = 596). Participants with multiple or persistent RPs were more likely to receive any ADHD diagnoses (p =.017), particularly of hyperactive/impulsive subtype (p =.032). In contrast, there were no associations between multiple or persistent RPs and IQ scores in young adulthood. Conclusions: The results indicate long‐lasting associations between multiple or persistent RPs and behavioral problems. Thus, screening for early RPs could help to identify children who are at risk for later behavioral problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Very preterm (<32 weeks' gestational age; VP) or very low-birth weight (<1,500 g; VLBW) birth has been associated with increased risk for anxiety and mood disorders and less partnering in adulthood. The aim was to test whether (a) VP/VLBW are at increased risk of any anxiety or mood disorders from 6 to 26 years compared with term-born individuals; (b) social support from romantic partners is associated with protection from anxiety and mood disorders; and (c) VP/VLBW adults' lower social support mediates their risk for any anxiety and mood disorders. Methods Data are from a prospective geographically defined longitudinal whole-population study in South Bavaria (Germany). Two hundred VP/VLBW and 197 term individuals were studied from birth to adulthood. Anxiety and mood disorders were assessed at 6, 8, and 26 years with standardized diagnostic interviews and social support via self-report at age 26. Results At age 6, VP/VLBW children were not at increased risk of any anxiety or mood disorder. At age 8, VP/VLBW more often had any anxiety disorder than term comparisons (11.8% vs. 6.6%, OR = 2.10, 95% CI [1.08-4.10]). VP/VLBW adults had an increased risk for any mood (27.5% vs. 18.8%, OR = 1.65 [1.02-2.67]) but not for any anxiety disorder (33.0% vs. 28.4%, OR = 1.27 [0.82-1.96]). None of the significant differences survived correction for multiple testing. Social support was associated with a lower risk of anxiety or mood disorders in both groups (OR = 0.81 [0.68-0.96]) and mediated the association of VP/VLBW birth with any anxiety or any mood disorders at age 26. Conclusions This study does not show a persistently increased risk for any anxiety or mood disorder after VP/VLBW birth. Low social support from a romantic partner mediates the risk for anxiety or mood disorders after VP/VLBW birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Very preterm ( VP; gestational age <32 weeks) and very low birth weight ( VLBW; <1500 grams) is related to attention problems in childhood and adulthood. The stability of these problems into adulthood is not known. Methods The Bavarian Longitudinal Study is a prospective cohort study that followed 260 VP/ VLBW and 229 term-born individuals from birth to adulthood. Data on attention were collected at 6, 8, and 26 years of age, using parent reports, expert behavior observations, and clinical ADHD diagnoses. Results At each assessment, VP/ VLBW individuals had significantly more attention problems, shorter attention span, and were more frequently diagnosed with ADHD than term-born comparisons. In both VP/ VLBW and term-born individuals, overall, attention span increased and attention problems decreased from childhood to adulthood. Attention problems and attention span were more stable over time for VP/ VLBW than term-born individuals. Similarly, ADHD diagnoses showed moderate stability from childhood to adulthood in VP/ VLBW, but not in term-born individuals. However, when those with severe disabilities were excluded, differences between VP/ VLBW and term-born individuals reduced. Conclusions Despite improvement in attention regulation from childhood to adulthood, children born very preterm remained at increased risk for attention problems in adulthood. In contrast, term-born children with clinical attention problems outgrew these by adulthood. As inattentive behavior of VP/ VLBW children may be overlooked by teachers, it may be necessary to raise awareness for school intervention programs that reduce attention problems in VP/ VLBW children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Children born very preterm ( VP <32 weeks gestation) and/or with very low birth weight ( VBLW <1500 g; subsequently VP/ VLBW) have been previously reported to have more cognitive impairment and specific executive functioning problems than term children; however, it remains unclear whether these problems persist into adulthood. This study aimed to examine general intelligence ( IQ) and executive functioning ( EF) of adults born VP/ VLBW in comparison to term controls. Additionally, the effects of smallness for gestational age ( SGA) and family socioeconomic status ( SES) at birth were investigated. Methods The Bavarian Longitudinal Study is a geographically defined prospective cohort study of neonatal at-risk children born in 1985/86 in Southern Germany. A total of 217 VP/ VLBW and 197 controls completed the battery of IQ and EF tests at 26 years of age. Results VP/ VLBW adults scored significantly lower than controls in IQ and EF. There was a 1.16 standard deviation ( SD) unit difference between the VP/ VLBW and controls in Full-Scale IQ. VP/ VLBW adults were found to have general and multiple cognitive problems rather than specific deficits in EF. SGA was not a significant predictor of cognitive impairment. Family SES had a significant impact on general intelligence in both VP/ VLBW and term controls. The SES effects amounted to 1.13 SD units between individuals born into high versus low SES. Conclusions No narrowing of cognitive deficits between VP/ VLBW and term control adults to previous childhood assessments at 6 years of age was found. VP/ VLBW adults do not outgrow their cognitive problems despite many receiving special educational support in childhood. Low family SES at birth has similar additive adverse effects on cognitive performance in VP/ VLBW and term offspring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Differential Susceptibility Theory ( DST) postulates that some children are more affected - for better and for worse - by developmental experiences, including parenting, than others. Low birth weight ( LBW, 1,500-2,499 g) may not only be a predictor for neurodevelopmental impairment but also a marker for prenatally programmed susceptibility. The aim was to test if effects of sensitive parenting on LBW and very LBW ( VLBW, <1,500 g) versus normal birth weight ( NBW, ≥2,500 g) children's academic achievement are best explained by a differential susceptibility versus diathesis-stress model of person-X-environment interaction. Methods Nine hundred and twenty-two children ranging from 600 g to 5,140 g birth weight were studied as part of a prospective, geographically defined, longitudinal investigation of neonatal at-risk children in South Germany (Bavarian Longitudinal Study). Sensitive parenting during a structured mother-child interaction task was observed and rated at age 6 years. Academic achievement was assessed with standardized mathematic, reading, and spelling/writing tests at age 8 years. Results Maternal sensitivity positively predicted the academic achievement of both LBW ( n = 283) and VLBW ( n = 202) children. Confirmatory-comparative and model-fitting analysis (testing LBW vs. NBW and VLBW vs. NBW) indicated that LBW and VLBW children were more susceptible than NBW to the adverse effects of low-sensitive, but not beneficial effects of high-sensitive parenting. Conclusions Findings proved more consistent with the diathesis stress than differential-susceptibility model of person-X-environment interaction: LBW and VLBW children's exposure to positive parenting predicted catch-up to their NBW peers, whereas exposure to negative parenting predicted much poorer functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children born preterm or with low birth weight ( LBW) grow up with an increased risk for a range of neurodevelopmental, cognitive, socioemotional, and academic problems. While long-term effects of preterm and LBW birth have traditionally been studied from a deficit perspective, Treyvaud et al. correctly state that the increased risk for impairments in this population urgently requires identification of protective factors. Their new findings add to empirical evidence from observational studies showing that sensitive parenting can protect preterm children from negative developmental outcomes. In order to identify strategies that support preterm children's life chances, well-designed longitudinal studies, such as the one by Treyvaud et al., are indispensable. Next, we will need large randomized trials to test the causality between intervention-induced parenting changes and preterm children's long-term outcomes. We need interdisciplinary and international collaboration to study preterm parent-child dyads within multimethod frameworks and uncover the highly complex mechanisms that shape individual developmental trajectories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]