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Evidence has shown that video game play is significantly associated with children's psychological well-being. However, the findings are mixed. To what extent that different levels of video game use are associated with different dimensions of psychosocial well-being is unclear among Chinese children. This study examined the association between video game time and children's internalizing and externalizing problems as well as their prosocial behavior, and investigated the mediating role of self-esteem in these relationships. We conducted school-based surveys in M district of Shanghai among 1237 pairs of child-parent, using convenience sampling strategy. We employed the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to measure the psychosocial well-being and self-esteem of children, respectively. Mediation model with bootstrapping was used to estimate the magnitude and the respective bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals of the indirect effects of video game use on three outcomes through self-esteem. 47.9%, 8.1% and 6.1% children spent less than one hour, 1–2 h, and more than two hours per day on video game use respectively. Compared to children without playing video game, those spending more time on video game showed more externalizing problems, poorer prosocial behavior, and lower self-esteem. The mediating role of self-esteem was discovered between the relationship of moderate- and high-levels of video game use and children's psychosocial well-being. This study underlined the importance of improving self-esteem of young video game players who suffered from psychosocial problems. More evidence-based studies are needed to provide empirical evidence for the introduction of more effective and targeted policies. Highlights: This study examined the association between video game use and children's psychosocial well-being and the mediating role of self-esteem in these relationships. Self-esteem mediated the relationship between the moderate and higher levels of video game use and psychosocial well-being. Moderate and high levels of video game use were associated with more external problems and worse prosocial behavior. High self-esteem was significantly associated with improved psychosocial well-being. This study underlined the importance of improving self-esteem of young video game players who suffered from psychosocial problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental burnout is overwhelming exhaustion associated with one's parental role. Numerous studies have explored the antecedents of parental burnout, with a deficient focus on its consequences, especially for children's development. This study investigated the interaction effect between two protective factors (i.e., co-parenting and parental psychological flexibility) of parental burnout on subsequent children's mental health through the mediation effect of parental burnout. A total of 262 Chinese mothers (Mage = 35 years old) raising preschoolers participated in a two-wave survey within 1-month interval. Path analysis confirmed the moderated median model. Specifically, parental psychological flexibility (PPF) moderated the mediating effect of parental burnout between co-parenting and children's internalizing and externalizing problems reported by mothers. For mothers with middle or low PPF, high-quality co-parenting was related to low children's externalizing and internalizing problems via low-level parental burnout. While mothers with high PPF were less likely to develop parental burnout and exert a negative impact on children's externalizing and internalizing problems even in face of low-quality co-parenting. Co-parenting and PPF may compensate for each other as the protective factors of parental burnout in mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing problems in China. Highlights: Parental burnout mediates the link between co-parenting and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. The mediating effect mentioned above is significant for mothers with middle or low level of parental psychological flexibility. Strategies to promote fathers' cooperation in parenting and maternal PPF are both needed in reliving maternal parental burnout and children's problems in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has consistently shown that parental psychological control is associated with negative psychosocial outcomes, including rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and delinquency. Given the potential long-term consequences of early involvement in externalizing problems, it is important to understand pathways of risk for a child engaging in these behaviors. Therefore, the aim of the current cross-sectional study was to investigate whether peer victimization underlies the associations between parental psychological control and externalizing problems. Participants included 275 children (51.6% girls) in the third through fifth grade (M = 9.33 years, SD = 0.99 years) and their homeroom teachers. Children provided self-reports of psychological control, peer victimization, and delinquency, and teachers provided ratings of peer victimization and forms of aggression. Rule-breaking behavior was assessed using school records. As predicted, a higher order latent externalizing problems factor was identified from indices of rule-breaking behavior, relational aggression, physical aggression, and delinquency. Further, results indicated that peer victimization served as a mechanism linking parental psychological control to a higher-order latent externalizing problems factor as well as individual indices (i.e., rule-breaking behavior, relational aggression, physical aggression, and delinquency). Findings from this study suggest that parents can have an impact on child outcomes through their impact on peer relations. Additionally, these findings may have important implications for early identification and prevention efforts addressing externalizing problems during middle childhood. Highlights: There was a significant indirect effect from parental psychological control to childhood externalizing problems through peer victimization. Findings remained consistent when using child- and teacher-reported peer victimization. Rule-breaking behavior, aggression, and delinquency significantly loaded on to a latent externalizing problems factor. Links between parenting behavior and externalizing problems are evident among children in elementary school. There might be multiple points of intervention when trying to reduce youth externalizing problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internalizing and externalizing symptoms are common among adolescents, and mindful parenting can play a pivotal role in their prevention. Study 1 explores the association between internalizing and externalizing symptoms and the moderating role of mindful parenting. Study 2 explores the longitudinal association between mindful parenting and externalizing symptoms and whether mindful parenting moderates the longitudinal stability of externalizing symptoms. In Study 1, 420 parents (81.9% mothers) of children aged 12 to 17 (M = 14) completed measures of mindful parenting and their children's emotional symptoms and conduct problems. In Study 2, 151 adolescents (65.6% girls) aged 12 to 17 (M = 13.9) from Study 1 completed a measure of antisocial behavior two times one year apart. Study 1 found an association between adolescents' emotional symptoms and conduct problems, and this association was moderated by mindful parenting. The association was significant only in adolescents whose parents reported low levels of the mindful parenting factor called "being in the moment with the child." Study 2 found an association between antisocial behavior at Wave 1 and 2, and this longitudinal association was moderated by mindful parenting. The longitudinal relationship was statistically significant exclusively among adolescents whose parents reported low levels of "mindful discipline." Mindful parenting seems to be a protective factor for adolescents' externalizing symptoms. Specifically, "being in the moment with the child" can diminish the association between emotional symptoms and conduct problems, while "mindful discipline" can be beneficial for reducing the stability of antisocial behavior over time. Highlights: Being in the moment with the child can reduce the association between internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescents. Practicing mindful discipline can reduce the persistence of adolescents' externalizing symptoms over time. Mindful parenting could be a protective factor for adolescents' externalizing symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the associations among negative beliefs about parenting, harsh parenting, and child externalizing behavior using a prospective longitudinal design. We assessed the influence of negative beliefs about parenting before becoming a parent on later family processes (e.g., harsh parenting) in early childhood, and child outcomes (e.g., externalizing behavior) across early childhood. The study included 249 target participants followed from adolescence to adulthood, after becoming a parent. Negative beliefs about parenting was assessed when the target was 18 years old (Time 1), negative beliefs about parenting, harsh parenting, and child externalizing behavior were assessed when the child was two to four (Time 2), and negative beliefs about parenting and child externalizing behavior were assessed again when the child was three to five years old (Time 3). Results showed negative beliefs about parenting before becoming a parent (Time 1) was related to harsh parenting (Time 2), which was related to child externalizing at Time 2, which was associated with child externalizing at Time 3. Negative beliefs about parenting at Time 1 was also related to negative beliefs at Time 2, which was associated with child externalizing at Time 2, then to child externalizing at Time 3. Finally, negative beliefs about parenting was stable from Time 1 to Time 3. In sum, negative beliefs about parenting affected parenting behaviors distally and child behaviors proximally. These findings have program and policy implications that suggest beliefs held in late adolescence may have an impact on later family processes and future child outcomes. Highlights: Negative beliefs about parenting in adolescence, before becoming a parent, influences later use of harsh parenting. Negative beliefs about parenting remains stable from adolescence to when their child is between the ages of three and five. Negative beliefs about parenting has concurrent effects on child externalizing behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite custodial grandchildren's (CG) traumatic histories and risk for psychological difficulties, knowledge is scant regarding the frequencies, types, and consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) they have encountered. We examined self-reported ACEs via online surveys with 342 CG (ages 12 to 18) who were recruited to participate in an RCT of a social intelligence training program. ACEs were assessed by 14 widely used items, and risk for internalizing (ID) and externalizing (ED) difficulties were measured using 80th percentile cut-offs on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Classification and regression tree analyses included all 14 ACEs (along with CG gender and age) as predictors of ID and ED risk separately. Given possible comorbidity, analyses were run with and without the other risk type as a predictor. Less than 9% of CG self-reported no ACEs, 48.6% reported two to five ACEs, and 30.5% reported ≥6. Irrespective of ED risk, bullying from peers strongly predicted ID risk. ED risk was peak among CG who also had risk for ID. Without ID risk as a predictor, ED risk was highest among CG who were emotionally abused, not lived with a substance abuser, and encountered neighborhood violence. The frequency and types of ACEs observed were alarmingly higher than those among the general population, suggesting that many CG have histories of trauma and household dysfunction. That a small number of ACEs among the 14 studied here were significant predictors of ID and ED risk challenges the widespread belief of a cumulative dose ACE effect. Highlights: This study is the first to examine ACEs among adolescent custodial grandchildren and uniquely does so from their own perspective via self-reports. The frequency of 14 distinct ACEs was alarmingly high (i.e., 67.8% reporting ≥ 3 ACEs), suggesting high risk for adverse mental and physical health outcomes. Classification and regression tree analyses revealed that a limited number of ACEs predict of risk for internalizing and externalizing difficulties. These findings challenge the common belief the cumulative ACEs are more problematic than individual ACEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This longitudinal study examined the psychosocial health trajectories of children following reunification from residential care and the associated contextual factors. Data were drawn from a randomised controlled trial evaluating the effects of a parenting programme on the successful reunification and reintegration of 1–13-year-old children with their families, in nine districts in Uganda. Families were randomised to receive either a basic reintegration package consisting of a reunification grant and case management (standard intervention) or an enhanced package consisting of the basic package plus 13 bi-weekly training sessions of a parenting programme (enhanced intervention). Data were collected from caregivers at home and the residential care facilities, as well as the children (n = 55 dyadic pairs) through prospective interviews at baseline (before reunification), and at 6- and 12-months post-reunification. Predictive growth curve analyses assessed longitudinal changes in child psychosocial problems (externalizing, internalizing, total behavioural problems) and associated contextual factors. In age, sex, and study arm stratified analyses, we found declining linear trajectories in children's psychosocial problem scores at 6 and 12 months post-reunification. Taking covariates into account, persistent externalizing, internalizing, and total behavioural problems at endline were associated with children's depressive symptoms, caregiver characteristics and quality of caregiving. Our findings suggest that children who are reunified from residential to family-based care have fewer psychosocial problems post-reunification compared to their time in residential care. These findings did not differ by age and sex of the child or type of reintegration package received. Although findings from our small single study have limited generalizability and should be interpreted with caution for policy and programming, they underscore the potential benefits of reunification programmes for children's psychosocial well-being. Highlights: This study examined the psychosocial health trajectories of children reunified from residential to family-based care and associated factors. Reunified children had fewer psychosocial problems at 6 and 12 months after reunification compared with their baseline when in residential care. Findings did not differ with child age, sex or type of reintegration package received. Persistent psychosocial problems were associated with caregiver unemployment, child depressive symptoms, poorer caregiver health, and low-quality caregiving. Larger studies with longer follow-up periods are required to validate our findings in a resource-limited setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to violence and racial discrimination are linked with behavioral and emotional health concerns among youth. However, it is unclear which coping strategies are most adaptive versus maladaptive for youth in urban areas. This study explored the extent to which coping, by using self-reliance or ventilating feelings, is adaptive or maladaptive for youth exposed to violence and racial discrimination in relation to their behavioral and emotional health difficulties. Data come from 398 ninth graders, of which 51% were male, and 92% were Black. Multigroup analyses for males and females were conducted to explore the associations between coping strategies and emotional and externalizing symptoms, with racial discrimination and exposure to violence as potential moderators. Results suggested for females, ventilating feelings and exposure to violence were associated with increased emotional and behavioral symptoms; for males, a series of statistically significant interactions suggested that coping strategies and community stressors operated in concert, with self-reliance coping serving as a protective factor. Highlights: Ventilating feelings and exposure to violence were significantly associated with increased emotional and behavioral symptoms in adolescent females For adolescent males, coping strategies and community stressors interacted to associate with emotional and behavioral symptoms Interactions suggested ventilating feelings may be a potential risk factor, whereas self-reliance may be protective for adolescent males Ventilating feelings and self-reliance applied to male adolescents; coping skills not assessed in this study may be more relevant to female adolescents Findings suggest gender-specific coping responses to violence and racial discrimination [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In custodial grandfamilies, grandchildren often provide critical support and assistance to their grandparents. Less is known about the extent to which grandchildren may serve as caregivers to their custodial grandparents and how providing care may impact their well-being. Informed by the stress process model, the purpose of this study was to examine the nature of adolescent grandchildren's caregiving to their custodial grandmothers and the relationship of providing this care to grandchildren's perceived caregiving interference and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. A survey was administered to 81 adolescents, aged 12 to 18, and their custodial grandmothers. Results suggest that grandchildren provide assistance with both instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs; e.g., housework, cooking) and activities of daily living (ADLs; walking, dressing). Results of a path analysis revealed that grandchildren's assistance with ADLs was associated with greater perceptions of caregiving interference in social and academic arenas, which was associated with increased externalizing behavior problems. Implications for practice, which underscore the necessity of interventions to support grandchild caregivers, and directions for future research, are addressed. Highlights: Grandchildren assisting grandmothers with instrumental activities of daily living, including household chores, was common. Grandchildren assist custodial grandmothers with activities of daily living (e.g., transferring, using stairs, and walking). When grandchildren assist with more activities of daily living, they report greater perceptions of caregiving interference. Grandchildren with greater perceived caregiving interference experienced more externalizing behavior problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The self-esteem construct has failed to demonstrate a consistent association with externalizing behaviors in children, leading to a basic question in the field: What is healthy self-esteem? From this has emerged evidence that self-esteem is represented at both explicit (Explicit Self Esteem; ESE) and implicit levels (Implicit Self Esteem; ISE). Studies with adults have found that discrepancies between ESE and ISE (e.g., high ESE, low ISE) are associated with narcissism and anger management difficulties. However, ISE is rarely studied in children and adolescents. This study explores whether ESE, ISE, and maltreatment (physical abuse yes/no) are associated with externalizing behaviors in a sample of children in foster care. A total of 161 children between the ages of 8 and 13 participated; 64.1% were African American and 53.9% were female. Children reported on ESE (Self-Perception Profile for Children; SPPC) and ISE (Name Letter Task; NLT). Foster parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and caseworkers completed the Child and Adolescent Needs and Strengths (CANS) to assess children's externalizing behaviors. The two consistent results across both analyses were that ESE alone and the three-way interaction between ESE, ISE, and physical abuse were associated with fewer externalizing behaviors. Probing the interaction revealed that children who had not experienced physical abuse and had discrepant self-esteem (low ESE, high ISE) experienced the highest levels of externalizing behaviors. These results indicate that both conscious and non-conscious aspects of self-esteem, notably their discrepancies, should be considered in mental health interventions, assessment, and research. Highlights: This study examined self-esteem (implicit [ISE] and explicit [ESE]) and externalizing behaviors in children who have experienced maltreated children. Testing the three-way interaction between ISE, ESE and physical abuse was the primary aim. Children without physical abuse but with discrepant self-esteem (high ISE, low ESE) had higher externalizing behaviors. These results may shed light on the inconclusive relationship between ESE and externalizing behaviors found in the literature. High ISE and low ESE may confer risk for externalizing behaviors in some youth, with implications for treatment tailoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In U.S. schools, disruptive behavior is by far the primary reason for disciplinary referrals, including suspensions and expulsions. School-based interventions targeting disruptive behavior usually position struggling youth as treatment recipients and neglect the psychosocial benefits of helping others. In this mixed methods pilot study, we evaluate the preliminary feasibility and acceptability of Peer Coach Training (PCT), a novel, school-based intervention for youth referred for disruptive behavior that deemphasizes the youth's existing problems and focuses instead on training youth to help their peers. We used quantitative and qualitative methods to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of PCT on two cohorts of disruptive youth (N = 9) in an urban middle school in Southern California. Youth and teachers completed assessments at baseline, post-treatment, and three-month follow-up. At posttreatment and follow-up, youth reported significant reductions in externalizing problems, as well as reductions in conduct problems, attention problems, and aggressive behavior; in contrast, teacher ratings yielded null findings. Qualitative interviews revealed that youth and teachers observed positive changes in peer interactions, self-confidence, and classroom participation efforts. Youth satisfaction data indicated that youth enjoyed participating in PCT and would highly recommend it to their friends. Results from this pilot evaluation suggest that training youth to help their peers is an appealing, feasible, and promising strategy for reducing disruptive behavior, however, controlled trials are needed to provide evidence for treatment efficacy. Highlights: Disruptive behavior problems are a significant risk factor for negative life outcomes among school-age youth. Existing studies have not tested whether positioning youth as helpers can reduce disruptive behavior. This study tests a novel, strengths-based program for disruptive youth that position them as helpers. Study findings indicate that positioning disruptive youth as helpers shows promise in reducing externalizing behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although parental psychological control has been found to be detrimental to children’s psychological functioning, less is known about the role of internal and external maternal and paternal psychological control in preschoolers’ socio-emotional development. In this cross-sectional, multi-informant study, we rely on the self-determination theory to examine the relations between internal (i.e., guilt induction) and external (i.e., constraining verbal expressions and erratic emotional behavior) mother-reported and father-reported psychological control and preschoolers’ (N = 136; 51.5% males; Mage = 5.53, SD = 0.66 years) externalizing symptoms, internalizing symptoms, and social competence, as reported by their teachers. Regression analyses revealed unique relations between internal and external psychological control and preschoolers’ social-emotional adjustment. While external psychological control related negatively to preschoolers’ social competence and positively to anger-aggression, internal psychological control emerged as the unique predictor of anxiety-withdrawal. Importantly, the results indicated that these findings were consistent for both mothers and fathers. Our findings suggest that parental internal and external psychological control differentially relate to children’s socio-emotional adjustment in early childhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parenting beliefs have a significant impact on the way parents interact with their children, but little is known about how children's behaviors may relate to changes in parents' childrearing beliefs over time, and whether changes in parents' beliefs may mediate the relation between child behavior and changes in parenting practices. We examined whether child externalizing behaviors at first grade related to changes in mothers' and fathers' obedience-oriented childrearing beliefs between first and fourth grade; whether parent anxiety interacted with child behavior problems to create conditions under which parents' beliefs were more resistant to change; and how changes in beliefs, in turn, related to changes in parents' autonomy granting behaviors between first and fifth grade. Participants included 895 families enrolled in a rich archival dataset, the NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development. Results showed that greater child externalizing behavior at first grade related to decreases in autonomy granting behaviors among mothers and high-anxiety fathers, as well as increases in low-anxiety mothers' traditional parenting beliefs. Mothers' more traditional beliefs related to declines in their own autonomy granting, and fathers' more traditional beliefs related to declines in their own and their partner's autonomy granting. Finally, a significant indirect effect showed that for mothers low in anxiety, child externalizing behaviors related to increases in traditional parenting beliefs which, in turn, related to decreases in mothers' autonomy granting. Findings are discussed in terms of parent gender differences and psychological flexibility. Highlights: The study examined how child externalizing behavior and parent anxiety relate to changes in parents' beliefs and behaviors Parents' traditional, obedience-oriented parenting beliefs related to declines in their autonomy granting behaviors For high-anxiety fathers, child externalizing related to declines in autonomy granting behaviors For low-anxiety mothers, child externalizing related to declines in autonomy granting through traditional parenting beliefs [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grounded in Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory, this study assessed children's (N = 1315) perceptions of maternal and paternal acceptance-rejection in nine countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States) as predictors of children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors across ages 7–14 years. Parenting behaviors were measured using children's reports on the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire. Child externalizing and internalizing behaviors were measured using mother, father, and child reports on the Achenbach System of Empirically-Based Assessment. Using a multilevel modeling framework, we found that in cultures where both maternal and paternal indifference/neglect scores were higher than average–compared to other cultures–children's internalizing problems were more persistent. At the within-culture level, all four forms of maternal and paternal rejection (i.e., coldness/lack of affection, hostility/aggression, indifference/neglect, and undifferentiated rejection) were independently associated with either externalizing and internalizing problems across ages 7–14 even after controlling for child gender, parent education, and each of the four forms of parental rejection. Results demonstrate that the effects of perceived parental acceptance-rejection are panculturally similar. Highlights: Studied effects of parent coldness, hostility, neglect, and rejection on age 7–14 mental health in 12 cultural groups. In cultures where mother and father neglect was higher than average, children's internalizing problems persisted. Higher than culturally-average levels of the 4 parenting behaviors predicted higher externalizing/internalizing problems. These between- and within-culture parenting effects persisted controlling for child gender and parent education. Results demonstrate that the effects of perceived parental acceptance-rejection are panculturally similar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the present meta-analysis was to compare associations of harsh parenting with internalizing and externalizing symptoms across regions of the globe and ethnic groups, and to search for moderator effects of indicators of cultural normativeness of harsh parenting. The systematic search in electronic databases and cross-referencing identified 971 studies. Random-effects meta-analyses were computed on bivariate and cross-lagged associations. Harsh parenting was associated with more internalizing and externalizing symptoms in all assessed regions of the globe and in all compared ethnic groups within western countries. Cross-lagged statistical effects of harsh parenting on change in child symptoms were found in North America, Western Europe, Latin America, East Asia, South-East Asia, and North Africa/the Arabian Peninsula, while there were no data from Eastern Europe. In line with the cultural normativeness hypothesis, a few moderating effects of the legal ban of physical punishment of children, acceptance and prevalence of physical punishment, and individualism-collectivism were identified. Externalizing symptoms predicted a stronger increase in harsh parenting if physical punishment was more accepted in the individual country. However, national levels of acceptance of physical punishment did not affect associations of harsh parenting with change in child outcomes. Although most associations of harsh parenting with child symptoms were statistically small (bivariate associations) or very small (cross-lagged associations), it is concluded that parents across the globe should be recommended to avoid harsh parenting. More longitudinal studies are needed for analyzing regional differences in parent and child effects. Highlights: Parenting effects varied, in part, by the cultural normativeness of the parental behavior. Harsh parenting was associated with more child symptoms across the globe, and in different ethnic groups. Externalizing symptoms predicted stronger increases in harsh parenting in countries where physical punishment is more accepted. Cultural acceptance of physical punishment did not moderate association of harsh parenting with change in externalizing symptoms. Similarly, cultural acceptance did not moderate association of harsh parenting with internalizing symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth in foster care are disproportionately at risk for developing internalizing and externalizing problems (Lawrence et al., 2006); however, a history of maltreatment prior to foster care placement does not automatically result in poor mental health outcomes. Among non-foster care youth, the quality of family interactions has been related to adjustment outcomes, such that low family cohesion and high family conflict is associated with poor mental health symptoms (Caples & Barrera, 2006). While little is known about these constructs in foster care placements, they may help explain the variance in internalizing and externalizing problems for youth in foster care. The present study aimed to examine whether characteristics of the foster care environment (i.e., conflict, cohesion) across various placement types (i.e., traditional foster homes, group-care settings) could help explain the link between previous maltreatment exposure and mental health problems. The sample included 178 youth in foster care (Mage = 15.18, SD = 1.76) and their foster caregivers living in the Midwest. Youth participants completed self-report measures about prior maltreatment history, current family environment characteristics, and youth internalizing symptoms. Foster caregivers completed measures on current family environment and youth externalizing symptoms. Results indicated that caregiver report, but not youth report, of family cohesion was negatively associated with youth report of internalizing problems. When examining the indirect effects, youth report of family conflict partially accounted for the link between youth self-report of maltreatment and internalizing symptoms (B = 0.106, 95% CI = 0.026–0.186). Caregiver report of family conflict fully accounted for the association between youth self-report of maltreatment and caregiver report of youths' externalizing symptoms (B = 0.108, 95% CI = 0.005–0.211). Findings highlight the importance of utilizing multiple informants when measuring foster family environment and suggest that family conflict is particularly salient for the mental health of youth in foster care. Highlights: Conflict within the foster care placement accounted for the association between maltreatment chronicity and youths' mental health outcomes. Foster caregivers and youth differed in their perceptions of conflict and cohesion within the foster care placement, and these discrepancies differentially impacted outcomes. Interventions aimed at improving the cohesion and conflict within foster placements may impact mental health outcomes for youth in foster care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The outbreak of COVID-19 is affecting the lives of millions of families around the world. The current study was carried out in Israel, following the pandemic's initial outbreak and during the resulting enforced quarantine, confining parents and children to their homes. A sample of 141 Israeli mothers with at least one child between the ages of 3 and 12 (M = 6.92, SD = 2.55) participated as volunteers. About half the sample (50.7%) consisted of girls. Most mothers were cohabiting with a spouse (93%). Mothers completed online questionnaires about their perceptions about the health and economic threats of COVID-19, availability of social support, their anxiety symptoms, hostile/coercive and supportive/engaged parenting behavior, and their children's behavior problems. Results showed expected significant associations between the mothers' reports about having little social support, their anxiety symptoms, hostile/coercive and supportive/engaged parenting behavior, and children's externalizing problems. Likewise, expected significant associations were found between mothers' perceptions about the health and economic threats of COVID-19, their anxiety symptoms, hostile/coercive parenting behavior, and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Importantly, maternal anxiety and hostile/coercive parenting behavior mediated the associations between lack of support, negative perceptions about the health and economic threats of COVID-19, and children's behavior problems. These findings stress the importance of mothers' mental health and parenting behaviors for children's socioemotional adaptation in the context of COVID-19. Implications of the findings for family interventions intended to help parents and children at this time are suggested. Highlights: Maternal anxiety mediates the associations between COVID-19's contextual features and children's behavior problems. Hostile/coercive parenting behavior mediates the associations between COVID-19's contextual features and children's behavior problems. Mothers' mental health and parenting are crucial for children's socioemotional adaptation in the context of COVID-19. Social distancing policies may lead to lack of social support, which is a risk for mothers' anxiety and parenting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental physical illnesses can be stressful for children. We estimated the prevalence of children who experience parental physical illnesses, and whether parental physical illnesses during childhood were associated with behavioral problems in adolescence. Data on children from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 was collected through questionnaires at ages 8 and 16 (n = 7037). Data on parental illness diagnosed during this study period was obtained from health registers. We investigated the association between parental physical illness (based on the International Classification of Diseases) and children's behavioral problems at age 16 (measured by the Youth Self-Report questionnaire). During the study period, 3887 (55.2%) children had a parent with at least one physical illness. Associations were found between parental physical illness and children's behavioral problems, with most associations found between maternal illness and males' externalizing problems, and females' internalizing problems. After adjusting for child behavioral problems at age 8, parental psychiatric illness and socioeconomic status, and multiple testing correction, only associations between parental physical illness and male behavioral problems were significant. Interestingly, parental illness was associated with lower problems. A notable proportion of children experience parental physical illnesses. Although mixed, our findings suggest that the impact of parental physical illness on children's behavioral problems is complex, and that the experience of parental illness may lead to resilience in males. This study emphasizes that children's needs should be taken into account when treating a parent with physical illness. Highlights: Parental physical illnesses, diagnosed in specialized inpatient or outpatient care, are present for a substantial proportion of the population. Parental physical illnesses have an effect on children's mental health. However, this impact is complex with some negative and some positive effects on children. Male children may cope better than expected with some parental illnesses, and experiencing parental illness may lead to resilience among some male children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) in the family context has detrimental effects for children's physical health and psychological adjustment. The current study examined the direct links between IPV and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and the indirect effect of coparenting quality as reported by a sample of 79 (80% African American, 11% Latina, and 9% Multiracial/Other), low-income mothers of children aged 2–12 years, the majority of whom were not in a romantic relationship (61%) or cohabitating with their child's biological father (64%). Results indicated that IPV history was directly associated with higher rates of internalizing behaviors, but not with externalizing behaviors. Coparenting quality mediated the association between IPV and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors, when controlling for parent relationship status, such that IPV history was associated with lower levels of coparenting quality, which was associated with higher rates of child behavior problems. Findings highlight the importance of culturally appropriate self-report measures of coparenting and implications of IPV in racially and ethnically diverse low-income families on child adjustment. Highlights: Previous research on IPV, coparenting, and child behavior problems has not been inclusive of low-income, racial/ethnic minority families. Coparenting quality mediated the relationship between IPV and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. The findings were significant in a sample of low-income, racial/ethnic minority mothers who were not necessarily in a relationship or cohabitating with their child's father. Future research should be inclusive of diverse families to inform preventative interventions for at-risk populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the association between parenting stress and child behavioral outcomes is well established, there is limited research with families of adolescents. Due to multiple transitions occurring and adolescents seeking independence, this developmental period may be especially difficult for families compared to earlier stages of child development. Exploring the influence of parenting stress on adolescent externalizing problems and how parenting can explain this link can inform parenting of adolescents, reduce the risk of adolescent deviant behaviors, and promote a smoother transition into adulthood. Thus, this study examined associations between parenting stress and externalizing problems (i.e., oppositional behaviors, proactive aggression, and reactive aggression), considering whether parenting behaviors (i.e., acceptance, psychological control, and lax control) served as mediators among 282 biological mothers (ages 28–61; M = 40.29; SD = 6.6) with 12- to 17-year-old adolescents (M = 14.19; SD = 1.84; 50.7% males). As expected, parenting stress was positively associated with all forms of adolescent externalizing problems. Additionally, parental acceptance mediated the association between parenting stress and all adolescent outcomes. Psychological control only mediated the association between parenting stress and oppositional behaviors and reactive aggression. Lax control only mediated the link between parenting stress and proactive aggression. The findings suggest that examining parenting dimensions and adolescent externalizing problems separately provided specificity that can inform future research and clinical interventions. Clinicians may benefit from assessing for and treating parenting stress among families with adolescents and targeting increasing parental acceptance and decreasing parental lax and psychological control during parenting interventions. Highlights: This study examined the links between parenting stress, parenting behaviors, and adolescent externalizing problems. Parenting stress was positively linked to all examined adolescent externalizing problems. Parenting behaviors explain the associations between parenting stress and specific aspects of externalizing behaviors. Compared to the other parenting constructs, the indirect pathways through acceptance were the strongest. Examining specific parenting dimensions and externalizing problems may help target family interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consistently, research has shown that higher levels of maternal education are linked to positive child outcomes; however, few studies have examined whether increases in maternal education after the child is born are a protective or a risk factor for child outcomes. Given a large minority of mothers complete education after having children, understanding the impact of maternal increases in education may be important. We aimed to examine the association between increases in maternal education during the first five years of the child's life and later child outcomes and explore the mediating role of the home learning environment and positive parenting. Further, we examined the moderating role of baseline education in the association between increases in maternal education and parenting behaviors. Data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a longitudinal birth cohort study comprising 4898 families, were used. Using structural equation modeling, findings indicated that increases in maternal education were significantly associated with greater child academic skill at age nine (b = 0.04) but not with child externalizing behavior. Increases in maternal education were not linked to home learning environment or positive parenting at age five; however, higher levels of positive parenting and a better-quality home learning environment were associated with more optimal child outcomes. Baseline maternal education did not moderate the association between increases in maternal education and home learning environment and positive parenting. Models accounted for associations with several demographic covariates, including maternal intellectual ability, child effects on parenting behaviors, and continuity of child outcomes. Findings provide limited support for policies that offer support for mothers to complete educational programs that may subsequently foster child academic skills. Highlights: Increases in maternal education were associated with higher child academic skills. Higher quality home learning environment was associated with better child outcomes. Positive parenting was associated with better child academic and behavioral outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schools are an attractive setting for implementation of mindfulness-based programs because mindfulness practices, by their very nature, align with a wide range of core educational goals. The present study investigated the effects of an 8-week (16 session) school-based mindfulness program for young children across 8 classrooms (K through 2) using a quasi-experimental delayed-intervention control group design. Results indicated that the mindfulness program was associated with significant improvements in teacher ratings of externalizing and prosocial behaviors. Program outcomes were not associated with child sex or race/ethnicity, but did vary by grade. Descriptive analyses suggest that outcomes tended to be more positive in classrooms with higher levels of teacher and student engagement. Results of the present study add to the growing knowledge base on the positive effects of school-based mindfulness programs and point to a need for more rigorous inquiry into the extent to which students and teachers are engaged with mindfulness programs both during the program itself and in their day to day functioning. Highlights: Teacher ratings of prosocial behavior and externalizing behavior improved after a 16-session mindfulness program. Program outcomes differed by grade but not across child sex and race/ethnicity. Teacher and student engagement in the mindfulness program was associated with more positive outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored how parenting stress can affect depressive symptoms in parents, between parents, and, ultimately, their children's internalizing and externalizing problems. First, we examined the relationship between parenting stress and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers. Second, we examined the mutual influence of fathers' and mothers' parenting stress and depressive symptoms on the marital couple. Last, we examined the effect of the mutual influence of parenting stress and depressive symptoms on the child's internalizing and externalizing problems. To this end, we analyzed the data of 1,358 participants in Years 5–7 (2012–2014) from the Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC), employing the actor-partner independence model and structural equation modeling. The results indicated that parenting stress was associated with depressive symptoms in both parents, which then exerted an effect on their children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Furthermore, parents' depressive symptoms mediated a positive relationship between parenting stress and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Our findings demonstrate the importance of the mutual influence of both parents' stress and depressive symptoms on children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Highlights: Children in early childhood were extremely susceptible to the internal characteristics of their parents. One parent's parenting stress was associated with his/her own depressive symptoms as well as the depressive symptoms of his/her spouse. The mutual relationship of stress and depressive symptoms in both parents was associated with the child's internalizing and externalizing problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grounded in emotional security theory and a dualistic model of harmony, the present study tested a moderated mediation model of disintegration avoidance, interparental conflict, and emotional security associated with child adjustment. A total of 70 Chinese parents completed a set of questionnaires on parents' disintegration avoidance (i.e., a dimension of harmony), constructive interparental conflict, and children's emotional security, internalizing problems, and externalizing problems (32 girls and 38 boys; Mage = 4.83 years old; SDage = 1.90). Multi-group path analysis was conducted to examine the mediating role of children's emotional security between constructive interparental conflict and child adjustment between parents with high vs. low disintegration avoidance. Significant pathways emerged to suggest emotional security as a mediator when parents reported a high level of disintegration avoidance. Supplementary analysis with disintegration avoidance as a continuous moderator suggested that disintegration avoidance and constructive conflict interactively predicted emotional security. Post-hoc simple slopes analysis further revealed that the relation between constructive interparental conflict and emotional security had a positive trend when disintegration avoidance was high. The findings enhanced our knowledge on the mediating role of emotional security in the context of Chinese culture. Evidence informs translational research in promoting constructive interparental conflict and emotional security as assets of child adjustment, particularly in families experiencing a high level of disintegration avoidance. Highlights: Emotional security mediated between constructive conflict and child adjustment when disintegration avoidance was high. Disintegration avoidance moderated the mediating role of emotional security. Mediation existed when parents' disintegration avoidance was high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion co-regulation between parents and children has recently emerged as a powerful correlate of children's psychosocial adjustment. However, most studies on this topic have focused exclusively on parents' responses to children's negative emotion displays. The current study employed a dynamic systems approach (State Space Grid) to mothers' moment-by-moment positive and negative emotion co-regulation with their preschoolers prior to and following a stressor to the relationship (a separation within a standardized paradigm, the Strange Situation Procedure [SSP]). This study combined newly coded behavioral data from video archives of the 36-month SSP with secondary data from one site of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. There were 80 mother–child dyads in the study with the majority of mothers being Caucasian (81.3%), married (72.7%), and having a college education or higher (78.9%). Hierarchical regressions were conducted to test the predictors of 36-month positive/negative emotion co-regulation and its relationships with children's 54-month internalizing and externalizing symptoms after adjusting for covariates in this longitudinal study. The results revealed that 24-month infant attachment security predicted higher 36-month positive and lower negative emotion co-regulation following the separation. Further, children in dyads with higher post-separation positive co-regulation and lower negative emotion co-regulation at 36 months had lower internalizing symptoms at 54 months. Lastly, 36-month post-separation positive/negative emotion co-regulation mediated the relationship between 24-month infant attachment security and internalizing symptoms at 54 months. The results highlight the unique contribution of positive/negative emotion co-regulation following stress for children's adjustment. Highlights: This study examined second-by-second emotion co-regulation in the Strange Situation Procedure. Infant attachment predicted co-regulation following the stressful separation. Higher positive co-regulation predicted a lower level of internalizing symptoms. Higher negative co-regulation predicted a greater level of internalizing symptoms. Infant attachment and internalizing symptoms was mediated by co-regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last decades, ambulatory psychosocial interventions aimed at treating child externalized behavior problems have been developed and tested. In recent years, however, it has become clear that the reported effects of psychotherapies have been considerably overestimated due to publication bias. In addition, previous meta-analyses of psychosocial interventions aimed at treating child disruptive behaviors have not accounted for potential interaction effects among moderators. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the effects of interventions while accounting for publication bias and dependencies among moderators. We searched electronic databases to identify randomized controlled trials targeting child externalized behavior problems treated in ambulatory settings. A total of 111 randomized controlled trials with 11,623 participating children were analyzed. Interventions targeting children with symptom severity below the clinical range demonstrated a non-significant effect (adjusted g = 0.12), while interventions targeting children with symptom severity within the clinical range demonstrated a small to moderate effect size (adjusted g = 0.38) that was sustained at follow-up (adjusted g = 0.27). We found the highest pooled effect size for individually administered treatments involving both the parent and the child (g = 1.11; no indication of publication bias). No other differences were found between delivery formats, including assisted self-help interventions. Publication bias was relatively smaller in high-quality studies. These findings suggest that the most effective treatment regime involves both the parent and the child, however, only when they are treated in an individual setting. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for interaction effects, publication bias and trial quality in future meta-analyses. Highlights: Interventions for children with symptoms within the clinical range are effective. Individual treatments involving both the parent and child had the highest effect. Child involvement was not associated with better outcome in group administered interventions. Analysis indicates that high quality studies reduce the risk of publication bias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the current study was to examine the role number of children in a family has on the discrepancy between mother- and teacher-reported externalizing problems. A total of 243 youth and mothers (Mage = 9.92 ± 2.84 years; age range: 8–16 years; 129 males and 114 females) presented for a psychological evaluation. Behavioral reports were gathered from the Child-Behavior Checklist and the Teacher Rating Form. A factorial analysis of variance first tested for mean-level discrepancies between informant reports across four sibling groups. Next, a polynomial regression analysis tested rank-order discrepancies as a function of sibling groups. Results indicated that mother-teacher mean-level discrepancies did not differ as a function of the number of children in the household. In contrast, rank-order discrepancies did differ across sibling groups; mothers with fewer children had higher congruence with teacher-reported externalizing problems. Overall, mother-teacher rank-order agreement was greatest when the child was an only child and decreased modestly with the first and each additional sibling. We discuss these findings in light of previous literature and provide direction for future literature examining mother-teacher informant discrepancies. Highlights: The number of children in a family is related to differences in mother- and teacher-reported externalizing problems. Rank-order discrepancies differed across sibling groups; mothers with fewer children had highest congruence with teacher-report. Mother-teacher rank-order agreement was greatest when the child was an only child, decreasing with each additional sibling. Mean-level mother-teacher discrepancies did not differ as a function of the number of children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rates of exposure to community violence (CV) are alarmingly high for youth in many countries, and associated with negative consequences. The present study examines the rates and consequences of exposure to community violence among Palestinian adolescents from Israel, age 14–18 years. Specifically, it examines whether exposure to community violence is indirectly related to academic achievement through internalizing and externalizing symptoms among adolescents; and whether the impact of internalizing and externalizing symptoms on academic achievements depends on parental levels of psychological well-being (PWB). A semi systematic random sample of 760 Palestinian adolescents in Israel, (320 boys, and 440 girls) completed a self-administration questionnaire. Most of the adolescents had witnessed community violence during the last year and during their lifetime; more than one third had directly experienced lifetime violence compared with 19.6% during the last year. Path analysis was used to examine a moderated mediation model, with internalizing and externalizing symptoms as a mediator of the relationship between exposure to CV and academic achievement, and PWB as a moderator of the path between internalizing/externalizing symptoms and academic achievement. Externalizing, but not internalizing, symptoms mediated the association between exposure to CV and academic achievement. Moreover, parental psychological well-being (PWB) moderated the relationship between externalizing symptoms and academic achievements. Findings highlight the importance of targeting adolescent externalizing symptoms and academic achievement following exposure to community violence. Study limitations, implications for practice, and recommendations for future research are discussed. Highlights: Exposure to CV related to high levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms and low academic achievement. Exposure to CV negatively impacts school achievement by triggering behavioral problems, violence, and aggression. Parental psychological well-being moderated the relationship between externalizing symptoms and academic achievements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study utilized latent profile analysis with 1088 children with incarcerated parents to identify heterogeneity in behavioral and social problems. Four profiles were observed. The majority (61%) were well-adjusted with low behavioral problems at school and less affiliation with antisocial friends. Youth classified as overactive (20%) displayed frequent disruptive and hyperactive behaviors, while isolated youth (14%) exhibited high loneliness and depression and were most likely to be bullied. Youth in the aggressive profile (7%) exhibited frequent aggression, school behavioral problems, and affiliation with antisocial friends. Although the aggressive profile represented the smallest proportion of the sample, their level of delinquent behavior and number of negative school outcomes were the most concerning. Examination of risk and protective factors by profile found overactive and isolated youth to be more likely to have two or more adults in the household compared to well-adjusted and aggressive youth. Meanwhile, well-adjusted youth had significantly higher school connectedness, parent support, and positive teacher relationships. Aggressive youth were least likely to be raised by a married caregiver. Universal behavioral assessments of children with incarcerated parents would be useful in identifying youth at risk for escalating or persistent delinquency or hyperactivity. Highlights: Most children with incarcerated parents have positive behavioral and school outcomes. 20% of youth displayed hyperactivity, while 14% reported loneliness and bullying. Youth at highest risk for delinquency represented only 7% of the sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study aimed to develop our understanding of the relationship between parental psychological control and externalizing behaviors among adolescents. We investigated the fit of a theoretical model in which need frustration and self-control were specified as sequential mediators between parental psychological control and externalizing behaviors. A sample of Chinese adolescents and their parents participated in the research. These seventh and ninth graders (n = 1118, mean age = 14.52 years, SD = 1.65) reported perceived maternal and paternal psychological control, and reported their own experience of need frustration and self-rated levels of self-control. Externalizing problems were rated by both parents. The results of structural equation modeling revealed analogous structural associations between perceived maternal and paternal psychological control and externalizing problems. Overall, psychological control was directly associated with externalizing behaviors in the maternal model (β = 0.24, p < 0.01) and paternal model (β = 0.26, p < 0.01). Parental psychological control was associated exclusively and sequentially with externalizing behaviors via need frustration and self-control (for the maternal model: β = 0.13, p < 0.05, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.24]; for the paternal model: β = 0.13, p < 0.05, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.24]). By introducing need frustration and self-control as intervening factors and by demonstrating their sequential effects, our study helps to clarify the mechanisms underlying the links between parental psychological control and externalizing problems. Highlights: Psychological control was related to externalizing problems directly and indirectly. Satisfaction of basic needs and self-control were sequential mediating factors. Paternal and maternal psychological control were of equal importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Accumulating research provides support for differential susceptibility, which holds that the same children who are most vulnerable to adversity, such as negative parenting, may also benefit most from enriched environments, such as positive parenting. This "for better and for worse" phenomenon is believed to be rooted in endogenous, biological susceptibility factors such as genes, and cognitive and physiological endophenotypes (e.g., heart rate variability and skin conductance). The goal of this paper is to discuss the effect of this biological perspective on children's susceptibility, and the inclusion of genetic and endophenotypical data in parenting research to shed light on the differential effects of parenting behavior We discuss a number of conceptual and methodological issues related to prior studies that have aimed to assess this. Methods: We review and discuss current and future perspectives on children's genetic- and endophenotype-based differential susceptibility to parenting, and experimental study designs that can adequately assess the within-person phenomenon of differential susceptibility. Results: We summarize our call for research in an experimental paradigm to test children's gene- and endophenotype-based differential susceptibility to parenting in their development of externalizing behavior. Conclusions: Hereby we aim to advance our understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying children's differential susceptibility to negative and positive parenting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study used a two-wave design to examine whether (dis)agreement between mothers and adolescents and between fathers and adolescents in reports of on parenting (i.e., support, proactive control, punishment, harsh punishment, and psychological control) was associated with adolescent Externalizing Problem Behavior (EPB; i.e., aggression and rule-breaking behavior) 1 year later. Methods: Adolescents (N = 1,116, Mage = 13.79) reported on EPB and parenting across both parents, whereas mothers (N = 841) and fathers (N = 724) reported on EPB and their own parenting. As suggested by Laird and De Los Reyes (2013), we used moderated polynomial regressions to investigate informant discrepancy. Results: Results indicated that agreement between mothers and adolescents concerning psychological control positively predicted EPB. Furthermore, there were linear and curvilinear associations between adolescent-reported parenting and EPB. Conclusions: Our findings indicated that the inclusion of multiple informants, and more specifically, the agreement between two informants was important in predicting adolescent problem behavior. Furthermore, it provided support for including both mothers and fathers in future research or clinical programs. Finally, the link between some parenting practices and externalizing problem behavior may be more complex than suggested by previous studies. Concerning clinical implications, the present study provides support for tailoring prevention/intervention programs for the different members of the family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: A growing body of literature has examined differences in the mental health and social support of abused women living in shelters compared with women from the community. However, less attention has been given to the differential effects of living in shelters and living with abusive partner in both mothers and children. A cross-sectional study was carried out to examine differences on cortisol awakening response (CAR), depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress symptoms, and social support in a Portuguese sample of women living in shelter compared to women living with abusive partner. Mothers also reported on their children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Methods: The sample included 162 mothers and their children (4–10 years of age), of whom 81 were living with the abusive partner and 81 were living in shelters. Results: After adjusting for covariates, mothers living in shelters showed better psychological, physiological and social functioning. In contrast, children living in shelters displayed higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms compared with children living at home with their mothers and abusive partners. Conclusions: This study suggests that for women, shelter residence may be helpful for mental health and for significant improvements in perceived social support, but for children, the results seem to suggest that they are not benefiting from the time they spend at shelter. Future studies using samples from women in shelters need to evaluate if the services offered are suitable for children's needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Bullying victimization increases the risk of displaying internalized and externalized symptoms and alexithymia traits among adolescents. The aim of this study is to examine the mediating role of Alexithymia in the relationships between bullying victimization and internalized and externalized symptoms. Methods: A total of 1092 students and their teachers (N = 67) of 4th to 6th grade anonymously completed a series of measures about experiences of bullying victimization, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and alexithymia. Results: Our data suggest that three types of bullying victimization (verbal, physical and social) predicted internalized, externalized and alexithimic symptoms. Furthermore, alexithymia partially mediated the positive effect of all the three types of bullying victimization on both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Conclusions: This study provided empirical data about the mediating role of alexithimia in exacerbation of internalized and externalized symptoms among adolescents and pre-adolescents exposed to three types of bullying victimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is sound evidence that increased level of peer support is linked negatively with youth vulnerably to internalizing and externalizing problems. Conversely, victimization by peers is associated positively with youth adjustment difficulties. The current study examines the mediating role of victimization in the association between classmates' support and internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and the moderating role of gender in that association. The study is based on a sample of 243 7th grade Canadian adolescents. The results show that classmates' support has a unique contribution to reduced adolescents' internalizing behaviors above and beyond the effects of parental and teachers' support. This association was partially mediated by youth victimization. Classmates' support was a stronger predictor of internalizing behaviors among females compared to males. With respect to externalizing behaviors, the results indicated that while classmates' support has no direct association with that outcome, parental support plays a central role in predicting externalizing behaviors. The association between classmates' support and externalizing behavior was fully mediated by youth victimization. The current study highlights the importance of support by peers, with whom they interact on a regular basis, to adolescents' well-being and functioning. The results also indicate that parents are still significant figures in adolescents' lives. Those facts should be taken into account when intervening with young people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aims to explore the relationship of mother's ways of coping with stress and family communication with the child internalizing and externalizing behaviors in Ukraine. Methods: In a cross-sectional sample of 294 mother-and-child (9–16 years of age) Ukrainian dyads, mothers answered questions from the revised Ways of Coping Checklist, FACES Family Communication scale, Child Behavior Checklist, and questions about their sociodemographic characteristics. Results: Robust regression results suggest increased internalizing behaviors were statistically associated with poor family communication (b = −.19, 95% CI [−.30, −.08], p <.01), maternal coping by accepting responsibility (b = 2.14, 95% CI [.44, 3.84], p < 0.05), escape-avoidance (b = 3.79, 95% CI [1.00, 6.58], p < 0.01), planful problem solving (b = 2.80, 95% CI [.61, 4.99], p < 0.05), child female gender (b = −2.53, 95% CI [−4.22, −.83], p <.01) and lower family income (b = −.003, 95% CI [−.006, −.0001], p <.01). Increased child externalizing behaviors were statistically associated with maternal seeking social support (b = 3.25, 95% CI [1.06, 5.43], p <.01), decreased positive reappraisal (b = −1.52, 95% CI [−2.91, −.12], p <.05), maternal unemployment (b = −2.80, 95% CI [−5.30, −.30], p <.05), poor family communication (b = −.46, 95% CI [−.59, −.34], p <.001), and child male gender (b = 3.48, 95% CI [1.53, 5.44], p <.01). Poor family communication was linked with significantly higher increase in internalizing behaviors for girls compared to boys (b =.17, 95% CI [.03,.32], p <.05). Conclusions: When examining child internalizing and externalizing behaviors it is important to consider the role of family communication and maternal coping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the feasibility and initial efficacy of a large-group, time-limited Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) adaptation for parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and externalizing behavior problems (EBP). Methods: Participants included parents of 37 preschoolers (Mage = 4.80, 87% Male, 73% Hispanic/Latino) with ASD and comorbid EBP. Parents reported on their positive and negative parenting practices and parenting stress at a pre-and-post treatment assessment as well as at a 6-month follow-up assessment. Positive and negative parenting skills were observed and coded during a parent-child interaction. Additionally, parents were objectively assessed on their knowledge of principles learned in treatment at pre-and-post-treatment. Results: The treatment was delivered with a high level of fidelity and was well received and attended by families. At post-treatment, parents reported improved parenting stress and parenting practices. Parents were also rated as engaging in more positive parenting skills and less negative parenting skills during play. Lastly, parents increased their knowledge of principles presented in treatment. Improvements in positive parenting practices were also maintained at a 6-month follow-up assessment. Conclusions: Findings highlight the initial efficacy and transdiagnostic nature of group PCIT for improving outcomes for children with ASD and comorbid EBP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion regulation is a mechanism that, when targeted in treatment, can ameliorate heterogeneous psychopathology across ontogeny. Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) is one evidence-based intervention hypothesized to improve child emotion regulation. Building on this hypothesis, the present study examined three objectives. First, it examined whether child behavior improvement or parent positive parenting skill use during PCIT predicted improvements in post-treatment child emotion regulation. Second, it measured whether these associations persisted after controlling for baseline child emotion regulation, as well as positive and negative parent emotion socialization strategies. Third, it evaluated whether positive parenting skill use and child behavior improvement mediated associations between pre- and post-treatment child emotion regulation. PCIT participants were 86 2-8 year-olds and their caregivers. Child behavior improvement during PCIT (β = −0.65, p < 0.01) and positive pre-treatment parent emotion socialization strategies (β = −0.33, p = 0.05) were associated with improvements in post-treatment child emotion regulation. Additionally, improvements in child behavior during PCIT (β = −0.29, p < 0.01) but not mid-treatment positive parenting skill use (β = 0.00, p = 0.98) mediated the association between pre- and post-treatment emotion regulation. For children with clinically-elevated emotion regulation scores pre-treatment, over 80% of such scores fell to the normative range post-treatment. These preliminary results indicate PCIT may be effective in improving children's emotion regulation, such effectiveness may persist even when treatment coincides with parent negative emotion socialization strategy use, and such effectiveness appears attributable to child behavior improvements over treatment. Additionally, parent positive emotion socialization strategies appear to be promising targets for future interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Understanding factors that impact child adjustment is imperative. Parental adjustment, parenting behaviors, and environmental factors (e.g., child routines) have been linked to child behavior. In clinical child populations, these factors are particularly important given the increased demands the child's disorder often places on caregivers. Furthermore, children in clinical populations often engage in increased levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors both related to and in addition to the core symptoms of their disorder. Two such clinical child populations are Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).Purpose: The first goal of the present study was to elucidate parental and environmental factors that predicted child behavior in ADHD and ASD. Based on Sameroff's Transactional Model of Development (2009), it was hypothesized that parental adjustment, parenting behaviors and child routines would collectively predict child behavior. A second goal was to examine differences in patterns of association between ADHD and ASD groups. Due to differences in the core symptoms of each disorder, it was hypothesized that the strength of associations would vary between groups.Method: Researchers examined the impact of parental adjustment, parenting behaviors, and child routines on internalizing and externalizing child behavior using parent-report measures (CBCL, CRQ, HSCL-25, APQ) of children ages 6 to 12.Results: Results indicated that for both groups, poor parental adjustment directly predicted externalizing child behavior and indirectly through harsh/disengaged parenting behavior. Fewer warm/supportive parenting behaviors predicted internalizing behavior, and more harsh/disengaged parenting predicted externalizing behavior. Higher levels of child routines predicted internalizing behavior for both groups but had a significantly stronger effect for children with ASD than ADHD.Clinical Significance: Findings have important implications for interventions on several levels (e.g., parental adjustment, parenting behaviors, and environmental supports) in both the ADHD and ASD populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we examined whether profiles of temperamental features in adolescence (a) predict internalizing and externalizing symptoms in early adulthood, and (b) differ in family processes (i.e., cohesion, conflict) during early adolescence. Participants were 662 youth (72% male; 76% White). Mothers reported on family cohesion and conflict during participants' early adolescence (ages 12-14, Time 1). Youth completed measures of temperament in middle adolescence (ages 16, Time 2), and of their symptoms in middle adolescence (Time 2), late adolescence (age 19, Time 3), and early adulthood (age 22, Time 4). Latent profile analysis identified three temperamental profiles: low positive mood, low rhythmicity, and well-regulated. Individuals in the low rhythmicity profile reported higher levels of externalizing symptoms compared to the well-regulated profile. No between-profile differences were found for internalizing symptoms. Mothers of youth in the low positive mood and low rhythmicity profiles reported higher levels of family conflict than the well-regulated profile. In addition, mothers of youth in the low positive mood profile reported lower levels of family cohesion than the well-regulated profile. Research implications of the study findings are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grounded in a conceptual model of family processes underlying socioemotional development and a contextual model of parenting style, the present study addresses the associations between parenting practices, mothers’ emotion socialization, and child adjustment in middle childhood. A total of 217 families involving mothers, fathers, and 8-year-old children (101 boys, 116 girls) were recruited to participate in this study. Findings suggested that fathers’ inconsistent discipline and positive parenting practices predicted greater and fewer children’s adjustment problems, respectively, over and above the effect of mothers’ parenting practices. Mothers’ emotion discussion with children predicted children’s lower externalizing problems. Mothers’ emotion discussion further buffered the association between mothers’ inconsistent discipline and children’s internalizing problems, such that children exhibited fewer internalizing problems when mothers engaged in moderate to high levels of emotion discussion with children. Supporting family systems theory, both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting processes contributed to child development. These findings add to the literature by providing evidence for cumulative family asset and risk underlying child adjustment. Based on the findings, scholars and practitioners may consider adding more emotion-based components of parenting to existing interventions that focus on parenting discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationships between temperament traits (negative affectivity, extraversion and effortful control) and children’s externalized and internalized behavioral problems. The sample was composed of 424 children from the ages of 3-6 years old (60% male). Use of a hierarchical regression analysis revealed direct and interactive effects. Specifically, reactive temperamental traits were found to predict behavioral problems in children: negative affect tended to increase externalizing problems, and extraversion tended to decrease internalizing problems. The regulative temperament trait (“effortful control”) negatively predicted both internalizing and externalizing problems. To explore moderating effects, post‐hoc analyses were conducted using the Johnson-Neyman technique with Hayes’s PROCESS. Our analyses revealed that high levels of negative affect (characterized in our study by a higher load of anger or frustration than of fear or sadness) makes a significant and strong contribution to internalizing problems when effortful control reaches its highest levels. Thus, our results endure the protective role of extraversion as preventing the emergence of internalizing problems, and the protective role of effortful control as preventing the emergence of both, internalizing and externalizing, problems. The results also alert to the potential risk of a combination between high levels of effortful control and high levels of negative affect. Overall findings are discussed with regard to previous and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescents who engage in aggression, hyperactivity, and delinquency experience a host of negative outcomes, including poor academic performance, peer rejection, and substance use. Previous researchers have linked somatization, such as pain, to behavioral problems. The purpose of this study was to examine whether resilience moderates the influence of somatization on externalizing problems by gender. We surveyed the parents of 195 adolescents, ages 14 to 17, while the adolescents were being treated in the pediatric emergency department of a large urban hospital. Parents answered questions about their adolescent’s somatic symptoms, resilience, and externalizing problems. Moderation models were conducted to test whether the influence of somatization on aggression, hyperactivity, conduct problems, and an externalizing behavior composite was dependent upon level of resilience, and whether these relationships differed by gender. Resilience lessened the impact of somatization on aggression and conduct problems, but these relationships did not differ by gender. The influence of somatization on hyperactivity as well as the externalizing composite index was buffered by high levels of resilience only for girls. These results are compatible with the Diathesis-Stress Model, suggesting that girls with low or average levels of resilience may engage in hyperactivity when they experience a level of somatic symptoms that exceeds the threshold within which they can manage stress. Future research should examine these constructs within longitudinal study designs in order to determine directionality of the relationships reported and advance the science of risk factors and potential intervention targets in the prevention of externalizing behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coparenting, the way that parents work together in their roles to parent children, has emerged as an important area for prevention and intervention. Though research indicates that low coparenting quality is associated with increased externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in children, the existing literature is not inclusive of families diverse in sociocultural identity and structure. We examined the link between coparenting and externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and tested the moderating effect of child gender on the relationship between coparenting and child behavior problems in two-year-old children of African American and Latina adolescent mothers. One hundred and thirty five parents (69 mothers and 66 fathers) completed self-report measures of coparenting and child behavior problems when their children were two years old. While we did not find support for a direct association between coparenting quality and child behavior problems, child gender did moderate the association between mother’s report of coparenting quality and both externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. High coparenting quality was associated with lower levels of externalizing behavior problems in girls and higher levels of externalizing behavior problems in boys. High quality coparenting was associated with lower levels of internalizing behavior problems in girls, but there was no difference for boys. Though the results for boys were mixed, our findings for girls suggest that high quality coparenting may be a protective factor for the development of both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Implications for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study compared parents’ emotion regulation (ER) in clinical (those with a child with externalizing behavioral problems) and low-risk comparison families. Additionally, mediation models were explored with parent ER predicting child behavior problems through child ER. Participants were 60 families with children (71.7% boys; 73% Caucasian) ages 2 through 8 years (M = 4.62; SD = 1.69) from a rural population in the United States: 34 clinical families referred for parent training and 26 nonclinical families. A blocking design was used to balance the two groups on key demographic characteristics. Parents’ and children’s ER was assessed using parent-report surveys and structured behavioral observations. Analyses indicated higher rates of parental emotion dysregulation (specifically, more difficulty when upset with achieving goal-directed behaviors, p = .01, d = 0.67; controlling impulses, p = .01, d = 0.64; limited use of ER strategies, p = .02, d = 0.62; and more negative verbalizations to their child during the observed task, p < .01, d = 0.73) and child emotion dysregulation (specifically, more difficulty as reported by parents, p < .01, d = −2.42) in the clinical group. Mediational analyses indicated there were indirect paths from parental ER to children’s behavioral problems through child ER. Findings from this research suggest a need to measure and target ER in both parents and their children when working with families who are referred for treatment of child behavior problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the years, evidence-based treatments for children with disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs; e.g., conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder) have been developed, however, there is not much information about the treatment children receive in usual mental healthcare settings. This study examined the common treatment provided in US ambulatory mental health clinics to children aged 3 to 9 years who are diagnosed with DBDs. An online survey was filled by appropriate respondents from 145 ambulatory mental health centers across 33 states within the US. The most common treatment provided for childhood DBDs was a combination of child therapy (CT) and parent training (PT) (n = 81, 56%), followed by family therapy (n = 42, 29%), CT (n = 17, 12%), and PT (n = 5, 3%). Behavioral and cognitive principles were reported as the most common treatment orientations across all types of treatment (n = 116/145, 80%). The mean number of sessions administered was 31.38 ± 22.72, and PT as a standalone treatment required approximately a third of sessions (10.6 ± 1.34). In treatments combining CT and PT, the utilization of specific parenting programs was associated with fewer administered sessions. Results suggest that the importance of parental involvement in treating DBDs is acknowledged in routine practice. However, more studies are needed to determine why certain types and orientations of treatments are favored over others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The investigation was an exploratory study that examined the association of externalizing and internalizing problems with school achievement and school engagement in a sample of African American mothers and adolescents (N = 200). The study also assessed whether demanding kin relations moderated the relations between these variables. Hypotheses were examined with structured interviews administered to mothers and adolescents. Results revealed that externalizing problems were negatively associated with adolescents’ school achievement. Also, the negative relations of externalizing problems with school achievement and school engagement were especially apparent in families with demanding kin relations. Additional research is needed on potential antecedents of demanding kin relations as well as the processes mediating the effects of negative relations with kin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this three-wave longitudinal study was to analyze foster parent stress and foster children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors in a transactional framework. Participants in this study were 237 children in foster care in the Netherlands with, mostly, long placement durations (M = 56.86 months, SD = 49.10 months). We examined concurrent, prospective unidirectional and bidirectional relations between foster children’s behavior and foster parent stress by using cross-lagged structural equation modeling and examined whether the results were stable across different subgroups of foster children. In contrast to our hypothesis, we found no bidirectional relations. There were unidirectional prospective pathways from foster children’s internalizing and externalizing problems to foster parent stress, but no significant prospective pathways from foster parent stress to foster children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. The results were fairly stable across different subgroups of foster children. The lack of bidirectional relations was unexpected given the presence of transactional relations in biological parent-child dyads. Foster parents seem not to influence their foster children when it comes to regulating problem behavior. Therefore, the question is whether foster parents can, in more general terms, help their foster children benefit from their improved home environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese revision of the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS), and to extend its application to preschoolers (4–7 years old). Teachers and parents of 216 preschoolers (age M = 5.11, SD = 0.9) were invited to complete the EBS, and some of the teachers were also asked to complete the Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (PreBERS) (N = 80) and the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQ) (N = 90). Results of confirmatory factor analysis suggested that the original single-factor model of the EBS didn’t fit the data well. Based on the results of a series of exploratory factor analyses, we proposed a two-factor model instead, representing externalizing and internalizing problems respectively. The Chinese revision demonstrated satisfactory internal reliability, inter-rater reliability, convergent validity and divergent validity. All these evidences supported its use among Chinese preschoolers to identify those who will be at risk of suffering from emotional and behavioral disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Higher levels of parenting stress and lower levels of parental competency have been shown to adversely affect a variety of child outcomes such as both externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Behavioral parent training programs simultaneously decrease parenting stress while increasing parental competency. Recent research has focused on possible mechanisms of change that influence the efficacy of behavioral parent training programs. The present study examined parental competency, specifically parental efficacy and satisfaction, as mechanisms of change in the relationship between attendance in the Parenting Our Children to Excellence (PACE) program and long-term levels of parenting stress. Six hundred and ten parents participated in the PACE parenting program and measures were collected at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and follow-up. Path analysis was utilized to test parental competency as a mediator between engagement in PACE and follow-up parenting stress. Parental satisfaction, one factor of parental competency, was found to be a significant mediator between engagement in PACE and follow-up parenting stress. This study has important implications in further identifying mechanisms of change within behavioral parent training programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]