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While social determinants of health have been perennially linked to child survival in resource-limited countries, the precise and tested pathways to effect are not clearly understood. The objective of this study was therefore to identify the critical pathways as posited a priori in a model through which social factors (at maternal, household, and community levels) determine neonatal, infant, and under-five mortalities in Nigeria. Using a novel analytic approach (hierarchical path modelling for predicting accelerated failure time) to estimate (in)direct and total effects of social determinants of child survival, we analysed 30,960 live births (weighted data for representativeness), obtained from the 2016/2017 Nigeria Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. There were three outcome variables: time until occurrence of neonatal, infant, and under-five mortalities. The independent variables were layered factors related to child, maternal, household and community. Geographical region, rurality of residence, infrastructural development, maternal education, contraceptive use, marital status, and maternal age at birth were found to operate more indirectly on neonatal, infant, and under-five survival. Child survival is due to direct effects of child's sex (female), gestational type (singleton), birth spacing (children whose mothers delivered at least two years apart), and maternal age at delivery (20–34 years). According to the path coefficients, the indirect effects of geographical regions are the most influential determinants of child survival, accounting for 30% (neonatal), 37.1% (infant) and 39.9% (under-five) of the total effects. This study offers comprehensive set of factors, and linked pathways, at the maternal, household, and community levels that are associated with child survival in Nigeria. To accelerate progress towards Sustainable Development Goal targets for child survival and reduce geographical inequities, stakeholders should implement more impactful policies that promote maternal education, contraceptive use and improve living conditions of women (especially in rural areas of northern Nigeria). Future research should focus on identifying the most effective interventions for addressing these social determinants of child survival in Nigeria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to assess the changes in neonatal and infant mortality rates in Nigeria over the period 1990 to 2018 using Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) data, and assess their socio-demographic determinants using data from the most recent survey conducted in 2018. The infant mortality rate was 87 per 1000 live births in 1990, and this increased to 100 per 1000 live births in 2003 - an increase of around 15% over 13 years. Neonatal and infant mortality rates started to decline steadily thereafter and continued to do so until 2013. After 2013, neonatal morality rose slightly by the year 2018. Information for 27,465 infants under 1 year of age from the NDHS-2018 was analysed using bivariate and multivariate analysis and the Cox proportional hazard technique. In 2018, infant deaths decreased as wealth increased, and the incidence of infant deaths was greater among those of Islam religion than among those of other religions. A negative association was found between infant deaths and the size of a child at birth. Infant mortality was higher in rural than in urban areas, and was higher among male than female children. Both neonatal and infant death rates varied by region and were found to be highest in the North West region and lowest in the South region. An increasing trend was observed in neonatal mortality in the 5-year period from 2013 to 2018. Policy interventions should be focused on the poor classes, women with a birth interval of less than 2 years and those living in the North West region of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The positive effect of women's empowerment on the use of contraceptives is well established. However, the reverse effect, i.e. the potential effect of use of contraceptives on women's empowerment, is relatively unexplored. This study examined the direct impact of contraceptive use on women's empowerment in currently married women aged 15-49 years in India using data from the National Family Health Survey-4 conducted in 2015-16. A two-stage least squares (2SLS) regression model was used to account for the issue of endogeneity that appears in a general logit model. The use of contraceptives by the sample women was found to be associated with greater women's empowerment in terms of both their mobility and decision-making power. The pathways to greater women's empowerment are often presumed to be factors such as changing perception of their domestic role and sense of control over their own body. While these are integral, this paper highlights how the possible control over family size and birth interval through use of contraception may also be critical pathways to increasing women's empowerment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interval between successive pregnancies (birth interval) is one of the main indexes used to evaluate the health of a mother and her child. This study evaluated birth intervals in Iran using data from the Iranian Multiple Indicators Demographic and Health Survey (IrMIDHS) conducted in 2010-2011. A total of 20,093 married Iranian women aged 15-54 years from the whole country constituted the study sample. Based on the nature of sampling and the unobserved population heterogeneity for birth intervals in each city and province, a multilevel survival frailty model was applied. Data were analysed for women's first three birth intervals. The median first and second birth intervals were 30.3 and 39.7 months respectively. Higher education, Caesarean delivery, contraceptive use and exposure to public mass media were found to decrease the hazard rate ratio (HRR) of giving birth. Meanwhile, higher monthly income increased the hazard of giving birth. The results suggest that public mass media can play an effective role in encouraging women to have the recommended birth interval. Furthermore, increasing family income could encourage Iranian couples to decrease the time to their next birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unwanted and mistimed pregnancies impose threats on the health and well-being of the mother and child and limit the acquisition of optimal sexual and reproductive health services, especially in resource-constrained settings like the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This study aimed to determine the prevalence and correlates of mistimed and unwanted pregnancies among women in the DRC. Data were drawn from the 2013-14 DRC Demographic Health Survey (EDS-RDC II). Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify correlates of mistimed and unwanted pregnancies. Sequential logistic regression modelling including distal (place of residence), intermediate (socio-demographic and socioeconomic factors) and proximal (reproductive health and family planning) factors was performed using multivariate analysis. More than a quarter (28%) of pregnancies were reported as unintended (23% mistimed and 5% unwanted). Women who wanted no more children (aOR 1.21; CI: 1.01, 1.44) had less than 24 months of birth spacing (aOR 2.14; CI: 1.80, 2.54) and those who intended to use a family planning method (aOR 1.24; CI: 1.01, 1.52) reported more often that their last pregnancy was mistimed. Women with five or more children (aOR 2.13; CI: 1.30, 3.49), those wanting no more children (aOR 13.07; CI: 9.59, 17.81) and those with more than 48 months of birth spacing (aOR 2.31; CI: 1.26, 4.23) were more likely to report their last pregnancy as unwanted. The high rate of unintended pregnancies in the DRC shows the urgency to act on the fertility behaviour of women. The associated intermediate factors for mistimed and unwanted pregnancy indicate the need to accelerate family planning programmes, particularly for women of high parity and those who want no more children. Likewise, health promotion measures at the grassroots level to ensure women's empowerment and increase women's autonomy in health care are necessary to address the social factors associated with mistimed pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have focused on the effect of short birth spacing on childhood mortality, yet very little attention has been paid to the possibility of an inverse relationship such that child mortality might also positively or negatively affect birth spacing. In Nigeria, where both fertility and child mortality are high, this inverse relationship is a possible reason for the country's high fertility. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of child death on time to birth of the next child. Data were drawn from the 2013 Nigerian Demographic Health Survey. The study sample comprised 188,986 live births born to women aged 15-49 years within the five years preceding the survey. A multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression model was fitted to the data, and hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals calculated. More than half of the mothers (68%) already had a next birth by 36 months after the death of the index child. Controlling for other covariates, the Cox regression model showed that the likelihood of next birth was higher when the index child had died compared with when the index child survived (HR: 2.21; CI: 2.03-2.41). Sub-group analysis by geo-political regions in Nigeria showed that in all regions there was a higher likelihood of having a next birth following the death of a preceding child. Death of the index child was found to be a major factor that shortens the length of birth intervals in Nigeria. It is therefore important that the Government of Nigeria intensifies efforts aimed at reducing infant mortality and encouraging adequate birth spacing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Childbearing intentions among women in high-fertility contexts are usually classified into those wanting to have a baby, those wanting to 'space' a birth and those wanting to 'limit' their family size. However, evidence from Africa increasingly suggests that women's intentions are more complex than this classification suggests, and that there is fluidity in these intentions. This research explores women's accounts of their childbearing intentions and decisions in order to examine how this fluidity plays out in a low-fertility context in urban Africa. Six focus group discussions were conducted in April and May 2012 with women of reproductive age in Nairobi, Kenya. Participants were recruited using random and purposive sampling techniques. The focus group discussions had an average of seven participants each. Data were coded thematically and analysed using Nvivo software. The analysis explored the factors that women consider to be influential for childbearing and found that the health of the mother and child, costs of raising a child and relationships were commonly reported to be important. Evidence of intentions to space births and limit family size was found. However, the data also showed that there is fluidity in women's family planning intentions, driven by changes in relationships or household finances, which often result in a desire to avoid pregnancy in the present moment. The fluidity observed in women's childbearing intentions cannot be accounted for by the concepts of either 'spacing' or 'limitation' but is best explained by the concept of 'postponement'. The research reveals the need for family planning clinics to provide a full method mix, as well as high-quality counselling, to enable women to choose a method that best suits their needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Short Birth Interval (SBI) is one of the main causes of adverse maternal and child health outcomes. A 33-month birth-to-birth interval between two successive live births should be followed to minimize the risk of adverse maternal and child health. This study aimed to examine the prevalence of SBI and the associated factors in rural India. Information on 98,522 rural mothers from the fourth round of National Family Health Survey data was analyzed. Bivariate statistics, logistic regression, Moran's I , and Cluster and Outlier Analysis have been used to assess the prevalence and spatial pattern of SBI in rural India. Results revealed that about half of the mothers in rural India had experienced SBI. Rural Indian mothers whose child was not alive (OR = 1.76, 95% CI = 1.63-1.90), were not using any contraceptive methods (OR = 1.42, 95 % CI = 1.37-1.48) and not breastfeeding (OR = 2.73, 95% CI = 2.50-2.97) were more likely to experience SBI. On the other hand, rural mothers from the middle, richer and richest wealth quintiles (OR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.86-0.97; OR = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.80-0.92; OR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.55-0.66) and of age over 30 years (OR = 0.38., 95% CI = 0.36-0.39) were less likely to experience SBI. Analysis of spatial patterns revealed clear east-west differences in the prevalence of SBI. There was strong clustering of high values of SBI in most districts across the central, northern, western, and southern regions. The study suggests the need to introduce appropriate interventions and programs focused on reducing the prevalence of SBI in rural India.

The enduring sub-replacement level of fertility in Iran is the result of changing timing of births. Using data from the 2015 Hamedan Survey of Fertility, conducted in a representative sample of 3000 married women aged 15-49, this study examined variations in median lengths of birth intervals employing cumulative survival functions, and investigated the determinants of birth interval lengths using regression hazard models. The results showed that the median first, second and third birth intervals, estimated at 28, 74 and 136 months respectively, doubled between 1995 and 2015. The multivariate analysis results indicated the strong impact of contraceptive use and higher education on lengthening birth intervals, with greater effects on the timing of second and third births. The relative risks of second and third births were higher among rural migrants, unemployed women and those with shorter periods of breast-feeding and the death of a preceding birth. Only timing of the third birth was influenced by son preference. The implications of the results for low fertility and maternal and child health in Iran are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child undernutrition remains a major child health and developmental issue in low- and middle-income countries. The concentration (clustering) of underweight children among siblings at the family level is known to exist in India. This study examined the extent and covariates of clustering of underweight children at the sibling and family level in Uttar Pradesh, the largest state of northern India. Clustering of underweight (low weight-for-age) children was assessed using data on 7533 under-five children from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) conducted in 2005–06, analysed using binary logistic and binomial regression models. Related bio-demographic, socioeconomic and health care variables were used as covariates in the models. The odds of being underweight for the index child were about two times higher (OR=2.34, p<0.001) if any of the siblings within the household was malnourished or underweight. A longer birth interval increased the odds of a child being underweight. The odds of underweight were significantly lower (OR=0.69, p<0.001) for children born to normal-weight mothers compared with those born to underweight mothers. Similarly, the odds of underweight were significantly lower (OR=0.49, p=0.01) for children born to educated mothers (high school and above) compared with those born to illiterate mothers. The results of the binomial regression model suggested that the deviations between observed and expected number of children were positive (3.09, 3.78 and 2.71) for 1, 2 and 2+ underweight children within the households of underweight women, indicating the concentration of underweight children among underweight/malnourished mothers. Underweight children were found to be clustered among underweight mothers with multiple underweight siblings. The findings suggest that policy interventions need to focus on underweight mothers with multiple underweight children. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Over 2 million abortions occur annually in Pakistan, mostly in a clandestine and unsafe environment. This is an area of grave concern for the reproductive health of women. A dearth of credible data and incomplete information make the problem more difficult to address. This qualitative study was conducted in semi-urban settings in Pakistan to record perceptions and practices concerning care seeking, experiences and outcomes regarding induced abortions and post-abortion care services. Women who had had induced abortions and abortion service providers were interviewed. Unwanted pregnancies and poverty were found to be the main reasons for seeking an abortion. Moreover, the unwanted pregnancies occurred due to low use of contraceptives, mainly due to a fear or past experience of their side-effects, unfamiliarity with correct usage and perceived inefficacy of the methods, especially condoms. There is an obvious need for practical and innovative interventions to address unmet need for birth spacing through improved access to contraceptives. Contraceptive providers should be provided with up-to-date and detailed training in family planning counselling, and perhaps allowed unrestricted provision of contraceptives. As a long-term measure, improvement in access to education and formal schooling could increase young girls' and women's knowledge of the benefits of family planning and the risks of unsafe abortion practices. Males must be involved in all the initiatives so that both partners are in agreement on correct and consistent contraceptive use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most studies on birth intervals and infant mortality ignore pregnancies that do not result in live births. Yet, fetal deaths are important in infant mortality analyses for three reasons: ignoring fetal deaths between two live births lengthens the measured interval between births, implying that short intervals are underestimated; the recommended inter-pregnancy interval (IPI) after a fetal loss is shorter (6 months) than after a live birth (24 months), as the effect of IPI on outcomes might differ according to the previous type of pregnancy outcome; fetal death will selectively reduce the population at risk of neonatal mortality, leading to biased results. This study uses the Heckman selection model to simultaneously estimate the combined effect of IPI duration and the type of pregnancy outcome at the start of the interval on pregnancy survival and neonatal mortality. The analysis is based on retrospective data from the Rwanda Demographic Health Surveys of 2000, 2005 and 2010. The results show a significant selection effect. After controlling for the selection bias, short (<6 months) and long (>60 months) intervals after a fetal death reduce the chances of pregnancy survival, but no longer have an effect on neonatal mortality. For intervals starting with a live birth, the reverse is true. Short intervals (<24 months) do not affect pregnancy survival but increase the odds of neonatal mortality. If the previous child died in infancy, the highest odds are found for neonatal death regardless of the IPI duration. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In Guatemala, especially in rural areas, gender norms contribute to high fertility and closely spaced births by discouraging contraceptive use and constraining women from making decisions regarding the timing of their pregnancies and the size of their families. Community workshops for men, women and couples were conducted in 30 rural communities in Guatemala to test the hypothesis that the promotion of gender equity in the context of reproductive health will contribute to gender-equitable attitudes and strengthen the practice of family planning. Communities were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. Pre/post surveys were conducted. Odds ratios estimated with mixed effect models to account for community-level randomization and repeated measures per participant were compared. The analyses showed statistically significant effects of the intervention on two of the three outcomes examined: gender attitudes and contraceptive knowledge. Findings regarding contraceptive use were suggestive but not significant. The results suggest that it is possible to influence both inequitable gender norms and reproductive health knowledge and, potentially, behaviours in a short span of time using appropriately designed communications interventions that engage communities in re-thinking the inequitable gender norms that act as barriers to health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In life history theory, early life adversity is associated with an accelerated reproductive tempo. In harsh and unpredictable conditions in developing societies fertility is generally higher and the reproductive tempo faster than in more secure environments. This paper examines whether differences in female anthropometry, particularly adult height, are associated with fertility intentions of women in urban environments in India. The study population consists of women aged 15-29 (N=4485) in slums and non-slums of eight Indian cities in the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) of 2005-2006. Adult height is taken as a proxy for early childhood health and nutritional condition. Fertility intentions are examined by using two variables: the desire to have a child or another child, and to have it relatively soon, as indicative of accelerated reproductive scheduling. Evidence supporting the acceleration hypothesis is found in two urban frames out of 26 examined in a two-staged multinomial logistic model. In three cases, the relationship between fertility intentions and height is the opposite than expected by the acceleration hypothesis: taller women have a higher predictive probability of desiring a(nother) child and/or narrower birth spacing. Potential explanations for the partly contradictory relationship between the childhood health indicator and fertility intentions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates inequalities at the province level of the use of modern contraception and the proportion of short birth intervals among women in the DRC using data from the 2007 Demographic and Health Survey. Logistic regression and Bayesian geo-additive models were used. The posterior odds ratio and the associated 95% credible interval (95% CI) were estimated using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) techniques. Posterior spatial effects were mapped at the province level with the associated posterior probability maps showing statistical significance at 5%. The overall rates of modern contraception use among the entire sample of women (15–49 years old; N=7172) and youth (15–24 years old; N=1389) were 5.7% and 6.0% respectively. However, there was striking variation in contraceptive use between the two groups across provinces with a clear east-to-west gradient. The highest use in the total sample was in Nord-Kivu (OR 1.32; 95% CI 1.12, 1.55) and Bas Congo provinces (1.47; 1.22, 1.78). For the youth, the highest use was observed in Nord-Kivu (1.19; 0.92, 1.65). In multivariate Bayesian geo-additive regression analyses among the entire sample of women, factors consistently associated with lower use of modern contraception were living in rural areas (0.71; 0.62, 0.82), living in low-income households (0.67; 0.54, 0.80) and having no education (0.83; 0.67, 0.97). For the youth sample, living in low-income households (0.57; 0.41, 0.84) and no breast-feeding (0.64; 0.47, 0.86) were consistently associated with a lower use of modern contraception. The study shows a distinct geographic pattern in the use of modern contraception in youth and the entire sample of women in the DRC, suggesting a potential role for socioeconomic factors, such as accessibility, affordability and availability, as well as environmental factors at the province level beyond individual-level risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper investigates the impact on birth intervals of three distinct birth control strategies: stopping childbearing, spacing births and the postponement of further childbearing for reasons unrelated to women's family-building histories. A macro-simulation model of the family-building process is described that incorporates heterogeneity in fecundability. This model is used to demonstrate that the postponement of further childbearing has a distinctive impact on schedules of duration-specific fertility rates that differs from that of both family-size limitation and birth spacing. In particular, the simulation results, supplemented by an analytical exposition, show that reductions in fertility due to spacing are a function of interval duration and its log, while reductions due to postponement are a function of interval duration and its square. This provides a way to test statistically for the presence of, and distinguish between, differential postponement and spacing in regression analyses of birth history data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a longitudinal intervention study carried out in the Davao del Norte province of the Philippines. The intervention, tested through a quasi-experimental design, consisted of training of family planning service providers in information exchange and training of their supervisors in facilitative supervision. The training intervention significantly improved providers' knowledge and quality of care received by clients. Moreover, good quality care received by clients at the time of initiating contraception use increased the likelihood of contraceptive continuation and decreased the likelihood of both having an unintended pregnancy and an unwanted birth. However, comparison of women in the experimental group with those in the control group did not show any significant effect of provider-level training intervention on these client-level outcomes. The reasons for this conundrum and the implications for quality of care are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examining waiting time to birth among newlywed couples is likely to provide insights into the desire for spacing births among newlywed husbands and wives. Data from the Indian National Family Health Survey of 2005–06 are used to examine the desired waiting time (DWT) to birth among newlywed couples. The dependent variable is spousal concordance on desired waiting times. Overall 65% of couples have concordant desired waiting times. Among discordant couples, wives were more likely to want to wait longer than their husbands. Couples from richer wealth quintiles were more likely than couples from the poorest quintile to have concordant desired waiting times. Muslims were less likely than Hindus to have concordant desires. There is a need for spacing contraceptive methods among newlyweds in India. This may have implications for the Indian Family Planning Programme, which to date has largely focused on sterilization. Programmes need to include newlywed husbands to promote use of spacing methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most studies of closed birth intervals are regarding their variation at specific orders among females. This paper attempts to study the nature of the distributions of consecutive closed birth intervals. Data from the Uttar Pradesh National Family Health Survey 1998–99 (NFHS-2) were analysed. It was found that, under certain assumptions, the postpartum amenorrhoea period and menstruating interval are negatively associated, indicating that socio-cultural factors are affecting the menstruating interval. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After contraceptive use, breast-feeding duration is the major determinant of the birth interval length. Three methods of estimating births averted by breast-feeding, and the increase in contraceptive use needed to substitute for breast-feeding, are presented. Method 1 simply utilizes Bongaarts’ Ci, and the other two are based on mean birth intervals with and without breast-feeding. Estimates for each method are derived for six countries with DHS surveys from the mid-1990s: Burkina Faso, Uganda, India, Indonesia, Brazil and Peru. The estimated percentage of additional births that would occur if there were no breast-feeding ranged from 1–4% in Brazil to about 50% in Burkina Faso and Uganda, reflecting very low breast-feeding in Brazil and very high levels in the sub-Saharan African nations. Strengths and limitations of the three methods are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The focus of this work is the analysis of changes in completed family size and possible determinants of that size over time, in an attempt to characterize the evolution of reproductive patterns during the demographic transition. With this purpose in mind, time trends are studied in relation to the mean number of live births per family (as an indirect measure of fertility), using family reconstitution techniques to trace the reproductive history of each married woman. The population surveyed is a Spanish rural community called Lanciego, located at the southern end of the province of Alava (Basque Country). A total of 24,510 parish records of baptisms, marriages and burials made between 1800 and 1969 were examined to obtain the demographic data set. For each reconstituted family, the variables included in the study were the number of live births per family or family size (FAMS), year of marriage (YEAR), age at marriage of both partners (AMAN, AWOM), wife’s age at the end of marriage (WEND), duration of marriage (MARD), age at first maternity (A1CH), length of reproductive span (REPS) and number of children dying before their first anniversary (MINF). Through a principal component analysis, three factors were found that explained more than 75% of the total variance. Association of variables in factors I and III was particularly useful in characterizing the variability of mean family size in pre-transitional, transitional and post-transitional cohorts. During demographic transition, a decreasing trend is observed in the variables FAMS, REPS and MINF, while variables AWOM, AMAN, WEND and A1CH show a tendency to increase over the 20th century. Results obtained by multiple regression analysis confirm that the best predictors of family size (dependent variable) were REPS and MINF, which between them explained over 85% of the total variation in FAMS (R2=0·853). In Lanciego, birth control seems to be present on the evidence of an increase in age at first maternity and a decrease in age at last parturition, indicating that the beginning of the reproductive span is delayed and its end is brought forward. Interaction between family size and infant mortality is discussed in the light of various hypotheses, including replacement of descendants, the so-called biological effect and the theory of r and k selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intervals between pregnancies have important effects on fertility and maternal and infant health outcomes. This study uses linear regression with censored observation to assess the determinants of the waiting time to third pregnancy. The analysis is applied to data from the Second Malaysian Family Life Survey consisting of 1172 women who had their second delivery ending in a live birth. Contraceptive use, age of the woman, duration of breast-feeding, length of previous pregnancy interval and education of the woman all affect the waiting time to third pregnancy significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many mothers in low-income countries, particularly in rural areas, nurse their children for 1–2 years on the average. The main purpose of this practice is, of course, to provide the newborn child with the nutrition necessary for its survival. Prolonged breast-feeding, however, also has a birth-spacing effect and postpones the next pregnancy by inhibiting ovulation and by delaying resumption of the menstrual cycle. Suckling of the infant is important for this suppression of the menstrual cycle because it leads to the release of prolactin, which not only plays an important role in milk production but also inhibits the release of gonadotrophins which initiate resumption of the menstrual cycle. For further details about these endocrinological aspects of lactation see, for example, Rolland et al. (1975); Thomson, Hytten & Black (1975) and Buchanan (1975). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from New South Wales are analysed to show how the interval between confinements depends on the parity of the mother. When an average interval is calculated it is a weighted average for mothers of varying parity. The weights depend in part on the parity progression ratios and as changes in the parity progression ratios alter the composition of the population by parity, this affects the weightings used and thus affects the average interval obtained.For any interval, age of mother can be calculated at the birth of either child. When age of mother is calculated at the birth of the second child, it is found that the interval is shorter for younger mothers than older mothers. However, when age of mother is calculated at the birth of the first child, there is no significant variation in the interval with age of mother. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Family planning is not being practised in Wadi Turaba in western Saudi Arabia, which is a Bedouin community with different stages of settlement. Children are wanted in the family, and the more children, especially boys, the better the social status of the family in the community. The desire of a mother for more children does not appear to be affected by her age group, history of previous marriages or history of previous pregnancies.Knowledge about contraceptives practically does not exist, except on a small scale in the settled community. Every woman, following the Koranic teachings, weans her child exactly at the age of 2 years, which obviously leads to the spacing of births. In rather rare situations, coitus interruptus is practised. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper describes the matrimonial and reproductive behaviour of Italians who migrated to Belgium after the Second World War. Migrants were either already married, or later became married, to other Italians. Among the children of migrants, men equally chose Italian or Belgian wives but women tended to prefer Italian partners. Italian-Belgian marriages were more frequent among the better educated groups. Family size is smaller among migrants marrying after migration and in heterogamous marriages. Significant differences in birth intervals are found when marriage occurred before or after migration, between generations, and between homogamous and heterogamous marriages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrospective and prospective data collected in Cameroon were used to reassess hypotheses about how infant and early childhood mortality is affected by birth spacing and breast-feeding. These data show that: (a) a short preceding birth interval is detrimental for child survival in the first 4 months of life; (b) full and partial breast-feeding have direct protective effects on child survival in the first 4-6 months of life, with the effects of the former stronger than those of the latter; (c) early subsequent conception significantly increases mortality risks in the first 16 months of life of the index child. These findings are robust to various controls, e.g. study design, data defects, child's health conditions at/around birth, postnatal maternal and child recurrent illnesses, patterns of utilisation of health care services, and immunisation status of the child. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A prospective study of 113 children in rural Bhutan registered their morbidity and weight and their mothers' subsequent pregnancies, monthly for 32 months during the children's first 3 years of life. Children whose mothers had a subsequent birth interval of 18–30 months had an incidence of diarrhoea during the subsequent pregnancy 50% higher than their matched cohort whose mothers did not become pregnant (p=0·02). The relative risk for diarrhoea calculated from pooled child months was 1·51. Children whose mothers became pregnant also tended to have a higher incidence of skin infections.Children, whose mothers were pregnant when they terminated breastfeeding, experienced an increased incidence of diarrhoea around weaning (p=0·01). Children weaned at the same age from non-pregnant mothers did not show increased morbidity.This study, for the first time, relates observations of children's morbidity directly in time to the occurrence of the mother's subsequent pregnancy, and provides evidence of a causal relationship between a moderately short subsequent birth interval and a concurrent increase in morbidity for the study child. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Record linking provided information on the complete reproductive schedules of a sample of 1102 couples with at least two children born alive from a rural Spanish community characterised by very high extramarital reproduction. Birth spacing was analysed considering final family size as well as the legitimate–illegitimate status and sex of the newborn, and survival of the preceding sibling. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

To examine the effects of birth spacing on early childhood mortality, 3729 singleton births in 1983–84 were followed for 3 years in rural Bangladesh. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess whether the survival of older siblings modifies the effect of preceding birth intervals and to see if the effects of preceding and succeeding birth intervals are inter-related, controlling for the effects of sex of the child, mother's age and household economic status. With the exception of the neonatal period, birth spacing effects were highly significant. A preceding birth interval of <15 months was associated with a greater mortality risk in the post-neonatal period for children with an older sibling who survived infancy. However, a short preceding birth interval did not adversely affect post-neonatal mortality if the older sibling died in infancy. Neonatal and post-neonatal deaths were higher if older siblings had died in respective age intervals. A pregnancy interval of <12 months after childbirth raised the risk of death at ages 1–2 years considerably if the child was born after a short birth interval (<15 months). The results suggest that the high mortality risks of closely spaced children are due to sibling competition for parental resources. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The 1988 Malawi Traditional and Modern Methods of Child Spacing Survey data are used to identify determinants of infant mortality in Malawi. The logistic binomial analysis shows that socioeconomic factors are significant even during the neonatal period while the length of the preceding birth interval is significant in the post-neonatal period only. There is a strong familial correlation of mortality risks during both the neonatal and post-neonatal periods but the effect of geographical area of residence is stronger in the post-neonatal period. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The traditional preference for sons may be the main hindrance to India's current population policy of two children per family. In this study, the effects of various sociodemographic covariates, particularly sex preference, on the length of the third birth interval are examined for the scheduled caste population in Assam, India. Life table and hazards regression techniques are applied to retrospective sample data. The analysis shows that couples having two surviving sons are less likely to have a third child than those without a surviving son and those with only one surviving son. Age at first marriage, length of preceding birth intervals, age of mother, and household income have strong effects on the length of the third birth interval. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Postpartum sexual abstinence may be a major determinant of fertility and of maternal and child health in sub-Saharan Africa. This study examines the relationship between ethnicity and abstinence using data from the 1988 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. There is considerable diversity in the length of abstinence although only for one ethnic group, the Mole-Dagbani and other Ghanaians, is abstinence, both actual and ideal, very long. Respondents in most ethnic groups believe their abstinence to be adequate. A key motivation for abstinence is the unwillingness to have sexual intercourse with nursing mothers. Education, urbanisation, changes in marriage patterns and religious traditions are major factors shaping the ethnic differentials in abstinence. In comparison to breast-feeding, abstinence appears to have relatively little impact on the length of the birth interval and, for Ghana, has relatively few implications for fertility and child health. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study investigates the effect of both total and unsupplemented breast-feeding in conjunction with birth interval on early childhood mortality, using longitudinal data from Matlab, Bangladesh. A discrete hazard model approach shows that it is not the duration of total breast-feeding but the duration of unsupplemented breast-feeding which increases child survival. Unsupplemented breast-feeding appears as such a crucial determinant of early childhood mortality that its effect could not be substantially attenuated even when important demographic and socioeconomic factors were controlled. Each of the covariates—supplementation, previous birth interval and onset of a subsequent conception—has an independent influence on early childhood mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study used data from the 1984 Family History Survey conducted by Statistics Canada to examine recent trends and patterns of child-spacing among currently married women. Life table and proportional hazards estimates show that Canadian women, particularly those in younger age groups with higher education and longer work experience, start having children late, but have subsequent children rather quickly. This suggests that such women tend to complete childbearing within a compressed time period. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Life tables of birth intervals and median birth intervals in two Indian states, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala, were computed for several subgroups of the study population. Multivariate hazards modelling technique was used to examine the net effect of each of the variables studied. The results show a substantial effect of socioeconomic variables in child-spacing after controlling for the major intermediate variables. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Using a sample of 3080 women from Cebu, Philippines, interviewed immediately after childbirth and every 2 months thereafter for 2 years, the determinants of return to coitus are analysed. Eighty per cent of the women returned to coitus before the return of menses, and 90% did so before stopping breast-feeding. In hazards models, variables associated with traditional life styles retarded return to coitus. Situational variables (husband resident, crowding, children aged 6 and under), especially husband residence, and biological variables (mother's age, return to menses, and lactation) were significant predictors of return to coitus. The implications of the analysis for the construction of models of birth interval dynamics are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The consequences of different birth intervals on dietary energy requirements and dependency ratios at different stages of the family lifecycle are modelled for Gambian agriculturalists and !Kung hunter-gatherers. Energy requirements reach a peak at between 20 and 30 years after starting a family for the Gambians, and between 15 and 20 years for the !Kung. For the Gambians, shorter birth interval confers no economic advantage over the traditional birth interval of 30 months. For the !Kung, the lack of participation in subsistence activities by children gives an output:input ratio in excess of that reported in other studies, suggesting that they are in a state of chronic energy deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple and inexpensive method for monitoring child mortality in association with birth registration was introduced into the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. Eight thousand two hundred and one newborn infants were registered in 1988, approximately 77% of all children born in that year. The risk of death by age 2 was determined from reports given by the mother on the present status of a previously born child at the time of a recent delivery or during clinic registration of the current birth. This was 91 per 1000 for the province and corresponds to a risk of death by age 1 of 77/1000 by extrapolation using standard lifetables. This method was validated by comparison with a continuing demographic surveillance system covering 30,000 people in the western part of the province. The new birth certificate has been an incentive to increase supervised delivery rates and to generate a register that can be used to increase vaccination coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The relationship between subsequent lengths of lactational amenorrhoea for individual women in a prospective study of breast-feeding women in Bangladesh was studied. The data indicate that previous length of amenorrhoea has significant predictive value for the subsequent length of amenorrhoea. Information on previous experience with lactational amenorrhoea should be therefore incorporated into guidelines for the introduction of family planning during lactation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The effects of birth spacing on neonatal and post-neonatal mortality in Brazil were found to be very consistent with models based on data from other South American countries. The model for neonatal mortality simplified to three significant variables, whereas the model for post-neonatal mortality included four significant interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The 1975–76 Bangladesh Fertility Survey data show little evidence that breast-feeding is the intermediate factor through which birth intervals influence child survival in Bangladesh. Preceding birth interval, subsequent pregnancy and breast-feeding duration each have an independent influence on early mortality risk. Within a specific interval the risk of dying decreases with increase in duration of breast-feeding, and also with an increase in the time between the index birth and the next pregnancy. The death of the immediately preceding child in infancy has a significant negative effect on the survival chance of the index child at ages 1–5 months. However, death of the preceding child appears to have a significantly positive effect on the survival chance of the index child between ages 9 months and 5 years; this may be related to competition between siblings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Using data from the 1984 Canadian Fertility Survey, proportional hazards modelling was employed to determine factors associated with the likelihood of voluntary sterilisation among 5315 women of childbearing age, and the trends in timing and differences in the likelihood associated with different age cohorts. Multivariate analysis suggests that educational attainment, parity and duration since last birth at the time of sterilisation, religious commitment, province of residence and marital status at the time of sterilisation, are all important predictors. Education and parity attainment emerged as the best predictors of the timing of voluntary sterilisation in all age cohorts, but the contribution of other covariates varies between cohorts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The nursing behaviour of rural Nepali women, from two castes inhabiting the same village, is quantified on the basis of 2202 hr of continuous and direct day-time observation over 1 year. Feed duration, interval, total time and daily frequency are examined in relation to women's work, particularly the type of subsistence activity and seasonality. ‘Opportunity’ feeds are governed both by infant demands and maternal activity. Caste differences in birth intervals are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper analyses the relative importance of demographic and socioeconomic factors with respect to their role in reducing infant mortality in Egypt. Logit analyses of data from a nationally representative sample of Egyptian households, and for urban and rural households separately, indicate that demographic factors have more effect on infant mortality than socioeconomic factors. The results also show the need to improve housing in urban areas and sewerage systems in rural areas in order to reduce infant mortality. One of the most important policy conclusions, however, concerns the importance of providing a vigorous educational campaign to enlighten mothers and prospective mothers in both rural and urban areas on the positive effects of breast-feeding, longer birth intervals, and fewer children on the survival of infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study of the relationship between mortality risks of siblings born to the same mother shows that, in Bangladesh, the death of the immediately preceding sibling in its infancy has a negative influence on the survival chance of the child in question in its infancy; however, death of the preceding sibling appears to have a positive influence on the index child's survival at ages 1–5 years. Similar results are found for the survival status of the two preceding siblings. Preceding birth interval length and survival status and sex of the immediately preceding sibling are also significant predictors of child mortality between ages 1 and 5 years. Possible explanations may be that the index child faces stronger competition from its immediately preceding brother than from its immediately preceding sister, or that the index child is likely to be looked after more by its preceding sister than by its preceding brother. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines the patterns of timing of births of women using data from the Canadian Fertility Survey of 1984. Semi-Markovian schemes are applied to the maternity histories of the 5315 sample women in their reproductive ages in order to measure the intensity and timing of childbearing. Age-and-duration-specific transition probabilities are found to have substantially changed for the more recent birth cohorts compared to the older cohorts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This analysis examines the relationship between length of preceding birth interval and risk of intrauterine growth retardation using data on Swedish infants from the 1973 World Health Organization study of perinatal mortality. Results of a multivariate logit analysis demonstrate that the lower than average mean birth weight of infants born after short birth intervals cannot be completely attributed to their shorter mean gestation length. Infants born after birth intervals of 12 months or less are 30% more likely to be small for gestational age (SGA) than infants born 18–59 months after the previous birth, even when the effects of maternal age and parity are controlled. The results obtained here do not support maternal depletion as an explanation for the association between short birth intervals and elevated risk of SGA, since there is no evidence of an attenuation of the risk of SGA with increasing length of interval in the under 18 month birth interval range. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Birth history data from women in the 1975–76 Bangladesh Fertility Survey were used to search for intentions to replace dead children. The median intervals between successive births of orders (i) and (i + 1) were not shorter when some siblings of orders below (i) had died. Nor was the median duration between the death of a child and the first posthumous birth shorter when the dead child was a boy or when it was survived by fewer than two brothers. The median intervals were generally shorter when the mother lived in an urban rather than a rural area but this difference was attributable only to the shorter duration of breast-feeding by urban women. These results disputed the notions that the timing of births was deliberately quicker to replace a dead child, that attempts at replacement were sex-selective, or that child replacement intentions were stronger in urban than in rural populations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Indirect techniques are applied to estimate the current level of fertility and mortality among Kuwaiti nationals in Kuwait during 1980–85. The various methods discussed provide estimates in the vicinity of 45 per thousand for birth rate and 8 per thousand for death rate. While child spacing by birth order in Kuwait is about 2 years, the proportion of childlessness is very low (1%). As a consequence of lower mortality and stable high fertility, the Kuwaiti population remains young. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]