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The purpose of this study was to investigate the spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters of backward walking (BW) and forward walking (FW) on sand. Randomly selected subjects (n = 28) were categorized into a sand group (SG, n = 14) and an overground group (OG, n = 14). SG was directed to perform both FW and BW on sand, while OG performed the same on the overground. Spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters were measured using the LegSys + device. The comparative findings of both the groups showed that the spatiotemporal parameters of SG varied significantly from those of OG in both FW and BW conditions (p < 0.05). The kinematic parameters varied significantly between the two groups only in the FW condition (p < 0.05). When compared within each group, spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters in the BW condition were significantly different from those in the FW condition. However, the percentages of stance, swing, and double support were not significantly different between FW and BW conditions (p > 0.05). This study suggests that sand walking is associated with a different gait pattern than overground walking, as evident from the analysis of the results of spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters in both FW and BW conditions. Therefore, sand walking can be used as a new approach to gait and balance training in clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate effects of walking direction and speed on gait complexity, symmetry and variability as indicators of neural control mechanisms, and if a period of backward walking has acute effects on forward walking. Twenty-two young adults attended 2 visits. In each visit participants walked forwards at preferred walking speed (PWS) for 3-minutes (pre) followed by 5-minutes walking each at 80%, 100% and 120% of PWS of either forward or backward walking then a further 3-minutes walking forward at PWS (post). The order of walking speed in each visit was randomised and walking direction of each visit was randomised. An inertial measurement unit was placed over L5 vertebra to record tri-axial accelerations. From the trunk accelerations multiscale entropy, harmonic ratio and stride time variability were calculated to measure complexity, symmetry and variability for each walk. Complexity increased with increasing walking speed for all axes in forward and backward walking, and backward walking was less complex than forward walking. Stride time variability was also greater in backward than forward walking. Anterio-posterior and medio-lateral complexity increased following forward and backward walking but there was no difference between forward and backward walking post effects. No effects were found for harmonic ratio. These results suggest during backward walking trunk motion is rigidly controlled but central pattern generators responsible for temporal gait patterns are less refined for backward walking. However, in both directions complexity increased as speed increased suggesting additional constraint of trunk motion, normally characterised by reduced complexity, is not applied as speed increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An estimation method for a two-dimensional walking trajectory during free walking, such as forward walking, side stepping and backward walking, was investigated using a tiptoe-mounted inertial sensor. The horizontal trajectory of the toe-tip is obtained by double integration of toe-tip acceleration during the moving phase in which the sensor is rotated before foot-off or after foot-contact, in addition to the swing phase. Special functions that determine the optimum moving phase as the integral duration in every one step are developed statistically using the gait cycle and the resultant angular velocity of dorsi/planter flexion, pronation/supination and inversion/eversion so that the difference between the estimated trajectory and actual one gives a minimum value during free walking with several cadences. To develop the functions, twenty healthy volunteers participated in free walking experiments in which subjects performed forward walking, side stepping to the right, side stepping to the left, and backward walking at 39 m down a straight corridor with several predetermined cadences. To confirm the effect of the developed functions, five healthy subjects participated in the free walking experiment in which each subject performed free walking with different velocities of normal, fast, and slow based on their own assessment in a square course with 7 m side. The experimentally obtained results of free walking with a combination of forward walking, backward walking, and side stepping indicate that the proposed method produces walking trajectory with high precision compared with the constant threshold method which determines swing phase using the size of the angular velocity., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)