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The Uden–Slabroek cemetery yielded one of the richest Early Iron Age burials found in the Netherlands: an inhumation grave of a person wearing elaborate bronze and iron ornaments (ca. 8th century BC). Exceptionally mineralised fragments of wool textiles were found inside the corrosion layer of the bronze anklets and bracelets. Advanced multidisciplinary analysis of these textiles identified them as the remains of the oldest garment of the Netherlands, made from a bright red and blue wool twill fabric woven in a shepherd's check pattern. Advanced mass spectrometry analysis provided direct identification of dyes, including cochineal — the earliest evidence of a red dye for the entire region (especially the precious insect dye variant). Virtual synchrotron-based 3D analysis of the fragments documented the textile weave types and the morphometry of surface and buried layers. The correlation of the two approaches makes it possible to recover an entire, now-vanished, colour pattern from highly altered fabrics. • Textiles from one of the richest Early Iron Age graves (c. 800 BC) were studied. • We observed a red/blue wool in a shepherd's check pattern. • We report the first modern red dye in the supra-region. • Synchrotron imaging and dye analysis were combined in an innovative way. • We discuss the significance of the oldest coloured garment in the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early Iron Age Iranian bladed weaponry plays a significant role in discussions of metallurgical development in the ancient Near East. Due to its ubiquity in museum collections, as well as co-occurrence of bronze, iron, and bimetallic forms, it figures prominently in debates about the early ironworking techniques in the late 2nd and early 1st millennia BCE. However, dispersed collections, often lacking secure archaeological context, have made comprehensive assessment difficult. One major type of bladed weaponry, the so-called split-ear pommel swords have been the subject of much discussion, particularly around the presence of an iron core identified in many examples. Neutron tomography was applied to eight swords of this type to image their inner structure, assess the manufacturing process and determine possible recent modifications—the first time this technique has been applied to bronze Iranian weaponry of any period. The objects were recovered by the Border Force after being seized on entry to the UK and will be repatriated to Iran, providing an opportunity to investigate both ancient manufacture and modern (illicit) modifications. The results reveal extensive modern modification, namely the replacement of original blades—often made of iron—with different (but probably also ancient) bronze blades, conclusively showing that "iron cores" were not a technological feature in these bronze swords, but a result of modern tampering. Widespread iron blade replacement has masked the true extent of the production of bimetallic weapons and obscured the technological choices of early ironworkers. Given the centrality of unprovenanced objects in discussions of Iranian Iron Age metallurgy, these modifications have negative consequences for efforts to map the process of iron innovation. • Neutron tomography reveals modern modifications in ancient swords. • Bimetallic technology might have been more widespread in northwestern Iran than previously thought. • Modern pastiche-making continues to be an issue in archaeology. • Neutron imaging helps understand ancient technology. • Split-ear pommel swords were often iron with bronze cast-on hilts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The archaeological analysis of Historical mobility is an increasingly studied topic thanks to new geographic information technologies. This paper proposes a modelling exercise of the spatial behaviour of a Second Iron Age community in the Middle Tagus Valley: the hillfort of Villasviejas del Tamuja (Botija, Cáceres). Based on our knowledge of the configuration of the site and the surrounding settlements, we propose a heuristic use of a series of GIS tools to understand how the spatial relationship between both elements was structured. More specifically, we compare the results obtained with different calculation methods that combine two essential variables to address this issue: mobility and visibility relations. On the one hand, we evaluate the results with the application of an already developed methodology: the MADO analysis. On the other hand, we present a complementary procedure for the calculation of Least Cost Paths (LCP), considering the visibility as a key element in the mobility. The methodology uses the same data, in a paradigmatic case study for comparing results. The differences obtained through the use of different tools are thus evaluated in order to weigh up the additional or complementary knowledge that they can provide us with to investigate archaeological research questions such as the defensive architecture of the hillfort or the distribution of other nearby settlements. • Advance spatial understanding without direct connections, vital when central locations are known but routes are not. • LCPV as an alternative for mobility analysis compared with MADO. • LCPV's flexibility includes adding visibility criterion in mobility analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years the use of near-surface geophysical survey – especially magnetometry – has been on the rise across sub-Saharan Africa, illustrating its utility at both large and/or built-up sites with stone architecture, as well as smaller and more ephemeral village sites in equatorial and sub-tropical regions of the continent. This article describes geophysical surveys and excavations at Nanga and Kanono, two Iron Age village sites in the Machile Valley, Western Zambia, undertaken between 2019 and 2022. Surveys allowed for detailed analyses of village layouts and showed the relationship between domestic areas and areas of iron production. Subsequent ground-truthing of both domestic and iron production areas elucidated differential spatial patterns of iron production stages (i.e., smelting and smithing) between village sites dating to between 800 and 1400, and allowed for the identification, excavation, and analyses of several Early Iron Age smelting furnaces. • Magnetic gradiometry is effective for mapping shallow (<1.5 m) southern African Iron Age village sites. • Settlement patterns in Machile changed between the late 1st/early 2nd millennium from dispersed villages to nucleated villages • Gradiometry surveys show changes in the organization and spatial arrangements of iron working practices in Western Zambia • Spatial changes have implications for regional understandings of iron production as a socio-technical institution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Visibility analysis has become extremely popular in landscape-oriented archaeology in recent decades and has become even more widespread with the popularization of GIS tools, which have multiplied the ways in which visual perception can be analysed and digitally modelled. Visibility has been used as a proxy for different archaeological approaches, from the analysis of subjective perception to the assessment of strategic control. While interest has most often been focused on how objects, features and sites are perceived, there has also been an interest in how visual control is exerted from archaeological sites or other places in the landscape. Within the latter approaches, the distances at which visual control can be exercised have usually been determined in a more or less arbitrary manner, without a clear and empirically informed reference on how things and, especially, people can be observed and recognized differently at a distance. In this paper, we present the results of a field experiment carried out to measure the distances at which individuals can be spotted, recognized and identified with the naked eye in favourable conditions. Based on these results, we introduce the concept of Individual Distance Viewshed (IDV) as a GIS-based representation of visual control. This will serve as a reference to better qualify potential visibility in landscape analysis. Finally, we illustrate the applicability of this approach with a case study which explores the relationship between visual control and mobility during the Iron Age in the NW of the Iberian Peninsula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Northern Iberian Plateau during the Early Iron Age witnessed the proliferation of villages, showcasing well-preserved earthen architectural remains that offer valuable insights into past daily life practices. However, the application of high-resolution geoarchaeological approaches to these contexts has been largely overlooked, despite their significance in assessing complex sedimentary sequences predominantly composed of earth-based construction materials. This paper presents the outcomes of a microcontextual geoarchaeological study conducted on earthen dwellings from the Early Iron Age village of Cerro de San Vicente (Salamanca, Northern Iberia). Our study employed soil micromorphology, lipid biomarker analysis, XRD, and XRF analyses to investigate site formation processes, characterize construction materials and techniques, and explore aspects of daily life practices, functionality, and dwelling life histories. Our results have enabled the identification of three distinct construction layers within the dwellings, shedding light on recurrent events of floor use, maintenance, and repaving. Additionally, we have detected periods of abandonment and decay of the earth-based construction material that inform on the dynamics of abandonment and reuse within the village. Furthermore, our analysis has revealed the presence of well-preserved lipid biomarkers throughout the sequences, possibly associated with the past functionality of the dwellings. Ongoing and future analyses will further contribute to our understanding of ancient construction practices and the utilization of domestic spaces at Cerro de San Vicente. This study significantly enhances the limited availability of high-resolution, microcontextual data sets concerning Iron Age contexts in Iberia, underscoring the potential of our approach for future consolidation and advancement. By combining different geoarchaeological methodologies, we demonstrate the importance of integrating diverse analytical techniques to gain comprehensive insights into the socio-cultural dynamics of the Early Iron Age settlements. • Early Iron Age village in Northern Iberia, with numerous earthen dwellings. • Integrated application of soil micromorphology, lipid biomarkers, XRD, and XRF analyses to investigate floor sequences. • Lipid biomarkers are abundant and well-preserved throughout the earthen floor sequences of the dwellings. • Recurrent cycles of use, maintenance and decay are documented within the dwellings. • Relevant microcontextualized data can be obtained from the geoarchaeological characterization of construction layers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Traditionally, standardisation of manufacture has been investigated using metrics (e.g. length and width) and compared in terms of the coefficient of variation (CV). This paper argues that standardisation should not only be investigated via metrics, but also in terms of shape. An Iron Age lance head type ('Havor'), known from three main weapon depositions in Southern Scandinavia, is used as a case study to test the effectiveness of shape analysis against traditional metric analysis for investigating standardisation. Geometric morphometric (GMM) analysis is used to measure the overall shape variation and to test shape difference of the same lance type coming from three different archaeological sites. The results demonstrate GMM to complement the traditional metric approach. Whilst metric measurements offer insights into Havor lance standardisation, the results from multivariate analysis of GMM data provides further explanation about the source of variation in terms of shape, including an assessment of object symmetry. This paper represents the first known methodological application of GMM analysis to iron weapons and demonstrates it to be an effective method for studying product standardisation in terms of shape variation. Highlights • First application of geometric morphometric (GMM) analysis to investigate weapon standardisation of Iron Age weaponry. • First statistical investigation of symmetry in iron weaponry. • Metric and shape (GMM) analyses provide unequivocal evidence for the standardised production of the 'Havor' lance head. • GMM analysis provides improved results for assessing weapon standardisation, compared to traditional metric approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Ancient texts described that one of the most impressive ritual practices of the Celts during the Iron Age was to remove the heads of enemies killed in battle and to embalm them for display in front of the victors dwellings. An archaeological settlement excavation site in Le Cailar, in southern France, has revealed a considerable number of examples of this practice. It was documented by Classical authors and later by the archaeological recording of iconographic representations and skeletal remains of human heads. Weapons were also exhibited alongside the severed heads. Here we report the results of chemical investigations for the characterization of the biomarkers of embalming that are likely to be present in eleven fragments of these human cranial remains. These results may lead to answers to some of the archaeometric questions related to the subject of embalming in 3rd century BC Transalpine Gaul, thus advancing the knowledge of these ritual practices, documented by Greek Classical authors as part of the wider research into the proto-historic societies of the Mediterranean coastal region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This paper presents an integrated approach to the identification of complex re-processing operations of ancient ferrous artefacts from the multi-period site of Saruq al-Hadid, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Spatial and morphological studies and a range of archaeometric analyses – optical microscopy, X-Ray diffraction, Micro-Raman spectroscopy, neutron tomography – are used to identify various processing markers preserved in these heavily corroded objects and to distinguish two groups of differently processed fragments. The main analytical focus is the investigation of corrosion layers preserving traces of hot oxidation and forging of metallic iron, along with re-heating of previously formed rust layers. The collected evidence suggests that the numerous iron artefacts ritually deposited of at the site in the early Iron Age were subsequently retrieved and re-forged into semi-products as a part of larger scheme of recycling operations, in which Saruq al-Hadid was a first node. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Investigation of ancient corroded iron artefacts from the desert near modern Dubai. • We present morphological and microstructural analyses of 90 ferrous objects. • Artefacts preserve traces of hot oxidation, forging and re-heating of initial rust. • Large-scale re-processing of artefacts was undertaken long after their original ritual deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The Roman conquest of Gaul is usually perceived as the trigger of morphological changes in livestock and, more widely, the origin of an important agropastoral evolution. However, recent studies suggest that the economic transition between the Iron Age and Roman periods occurred much earlier than previously thought and was partially disconnected from Italy. This article, based on the morphometric analysis of pig teeth and bones, sheds new light on this transition. It reveals a more complex agropastoral change process, in two distinct phases, from the Middle La Tène period and after the creation of the Roman Empire. Moreover, it identifies two large economic models, around the Mediterranean platform and in the temperate part of Europe, with different paces of change, production objectives, and agricultural and market strategies. Highlights • Gallic agriculture and economy changed drastically between the 4th and 2nd c. BC. • Gallic economy experienced a second change just after the Roman conquest. • Two major economic models: in Celtic Europe and around the Mediterranean Sea. • Great regional diversity of economic behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Histotaphonomy has become an important area of research in funerary archaeology. It focuses on diagenetic alterations in bone microstructure and the reconstruction of post-mortem processes. Microbial bioerosion is the most common diagenetic change observed in archaeological bone, and its probable causes have been the subject of ongoing discussions. This paper presents a new integrative approach that combines methods from physical anthropology and geoarchaeology. The aim is to contextualise samples in regard to their sedimentary milieu (sediment type), the sedimentation processes they underwent, and the specific archaeological features they originate from. The analysis is based on 208 human and animal skeletal fragments from the Late La Tène site of Basel-Gasfabrik recovered from various feature types and embedded in different sediments. Both 80 μm and 30 μm thin sections were graded semi-quantitatively on a scale of 0 or 1 to 5 in regard to bacterial attack (BAI), Wedl tunnels (WTI), cyanobacterial attack (CAI), the formation of cracks (CRI), the collagen content (COI), and thermal alterations (HEI). Our results evinced no correlations between the intensity of bacterial attack and sediment types or sedimentation processes respectively. We therefore deduce that bacterial degradation of bone is mainly caused by endogenous gut bacteria. Wedl tunnels, on the other hand, are chiefly found in bones from exposed surfaces. Bone collagen content, as measured by birefringence, is dependent on a variety of factors, with thermal alteration being among the most important. Unlike the 80 μm sections used in anthropological investigations, the 30 μm thin sections typically utilized in geoarchaeological analyses permitted a reliable distinction of microbial bioerosion types. Our context-oriented histotaphonomic approach allows detailed conclusions on the causes of microbial bioerosion in bone. Moreover, it provides an important tool for reconstructing the post-mortem biographies of human and animal remains, especially in regard to (multi-stage) mortuary practices and the analysis of sedimentation processes. Thus, this novel approach generates a wealth of information from individual skeletal elements as well as from bone fragments embedded in soil samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Provenance and production of tin in the Ancient World has since long been a major topic of discussion among archaeologists. In Western Europe, where significant tin ore (cassiterite) deposits are known, only a few remains of ancient tin production, such as tin slags, have been detected. In the present work, elemental and microstructural analyses by WDXRF, SEM-EDS and XRD were performed on recently recognised tin slags from the Iron Age Carvalhelhos hillfort located in NW Iberia, a territory that represents the largest extension with tin mineralisation in Western Europe. Elemental and microstructural characterisation of cassiterite collected in a pilot field survey in the region of the hillfort are presented and discussed, as well as two ceramic fragments that could be part of a smelting structure and an iron slag from the settlement. Results show that the tin slags have variable but high contents in Sn, similarly to Pre-Medieval tin slags found in other Western European areas, but also high contents of Ta and Nb, which specifically distinguish them from other tin slags, such as those found in SW Britain. Tin ores from the hillfort region frequently have Ta and Nb in cassiterite solid solution or as inclusions of columbite group minerals, relating well with the Carvalhelhos tin slags. Up to present, the Carvalhelhos slags are amongst the very few ancient tin slags known in Western Europe, and their study can contribute to a better knowledge on ancient tin sources and trade routes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated stable isotope investigation of plant and animal ecology can shed new light on the practicalities and politics of land management. Ecological analysis of archaeobotanical weed flora offers a complementary approach to arable growing conditions. Here we introduce the first combined study of stable isotope compositions (carbon and nitrogen) of plant and faunal remains and functional weed ecology from mediterranean France in order to investigate agricultural strategies under urbanisation and their social implications. Animal bones and charred crops and weeds are investigated from two archaeologically distinct residential areas from 5th century BCE Lattara, zones 1 and 27, during a period characterised by significant urban expansion in the region. Plant carbon and nitrogen isotope composition and functional weed ecology suggest some differences in growing conditions between crops found in the two zones, zone 27 being associated with more intensively cultivated crops than zone 1, where extensive cultivation, which can achieve much greater surplus, was dominant. These findings coincide with archaeological evidence of a ‘richer’ variety of material culture and foodstuffs in zone 1. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic values of animal bone collagen suggest that the main domesticates from both zones consumed a similar diet; however, rabbits exhibit a difference, with those from zone 1 having significantly higher δ 15 N, implying that the two zones sourced this species differently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zooarchaeological research has begun to expose the long and complex history of the pig in the southern Levant. In this paper, we present the first large-scale synthesis of biometrical data from pigs and wild boar in the southern Levant from sites dating from the Paleolithic through the Islamic period. We show broad morphological change over this multi-millennium period. We find the first evidence of morphological change associated with domestication in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic C (c. 7000-6400 cal. BC), at the site of Motza. This date is contemporaneous with the first evidence from kill-off patterns and relative abundance data indicating management of morphologically wild boar. Taken together, we argue for a process of local pig domestication. We also present tentative evidence for increased body size correlating with the genetic replacement in the Iron Age, when European-derived mitochondrial haplogroups replaced those of local origin. Finally, the data indicate variability in tooth size in the Roman period (c. 63 BCE – 330 CE), suggesting the exploitation of different populations of pigs. The data suggest sophisticated management techniques underwrote the upsurge in pig husbandry in the Levant in the Classical period. • We present a large biometrical database of pig remains from the southern Levant from Paleolithic to Islamic period. • Earliest morphologically domestic pigs from Tel Motza in Pre-Pottery Neolithic C (c. 7000-6400 cal. BC). • Tentative evidence for increased body size in pigs correlating with the genetic replacement in 1st millennium BC. • High variability of pig biometrics in Roman period indicating multiple populations exploited in this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological distance, or biodistance, analysis aims to identify relatedness among human skeletal remains from archaeological contexts. However, analyses are often hindered by the fragmentary and heterogeneous nature of the data. Here, we introduce FLEXDIST, a flexible software tool for estimating inter-individual distances. FLEXDIST takes correlations among variables into account, works with multiple variable scales (i.e., nominal, ordinal, continuous, or any mixture thereof), handles missing values, and allows for high-dimensional data. Conceptually, FLEXDIST computes Mahalanobis-type distances using mixed data PCA iterated over multiple randomly imputed datasets to take uncertainty resulting from incomplete cases into account. Using a simulation framework, we demonstrate the performance of FLEXDIST compared to the Gower coefficient. We then apply FLEXDIST to a newly collected dataset comprising heritable and neutrally evolving dental morphological features from 64 archaeological human remains from Southwest Germany in order to explore population history along a temporal transect spanning the Final Neolithic to Early Iron Age (2900-450 BC). In agreement with previous archaeological, genetic, and isotopic studies from neighbouring regions, we find evidence for population continuity, alternating levels of variability through time, and mobility during childhood. A fully automated R script for performing FLEXDIST is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7869075. • New inter-individual Mahalanobis distance for mixed incomplete high-dimensional data. • Application to human dental remains from Neolithic to Iron Age Southwest Germany. • Evidence for population continuity, alternating variability, and mobility of children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bronze Age iron artifacts could be derived from either meteoritic (extraterrestrial) or smelted (terrestrial) iron. This unresolved question is the subject of a controversy: are some, all or none made of smelted iron? In the present paper we propose a geochemical approach, which permits us to differentiate terrestrial from extraterrestrial irons. Instead of evaluating the Ni abundance alone (or the Ni to Fe ratio) we consider the relationship between Fe, Co and Ni abundances and their ratios. The study of meteoritic irons, Bronze Age iron artifacts and ancient terrestrial irons permit us to validate this chemical approach. The major interest is that non-invasive p -XRF analyses provide reliable Fe:Co:Ni abundances, without the need to remove a sample; they can be performed in situ, in the museums where the artifacts are preserved. The few iron objects from the Bronze Age sensu stricto that could be analyzed are definitely made of meteoritic iron, suggesting that speculations about precocious smelting during the Bronze Age should be revised. In a Fe:Co:Ni array the trend exhibited by meteoritic irons departs unambiguously from modern irons and iron ores. The trend of Ni/Fe vs Ni/Co in different analysis points of a single object corroded to variable extents provides a robust criterion for identifying the presence of meteoritic iron. It opens the possibility of tracking when and where the first smelting operations happened, the threshold of a new era. It emphasizes the importance of analytical methods for properly studying the evolution of the use of metals and metal working technologies in our past cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Os isotopic ratios and trace element approaches were used to compare the signatures of ore and slag from different potential production sites located in eastern France and South-West Germany with the signature of artefacts from the end of the first Iron Age. A set of 31 artefacts was tested, consisting of bipyramidal semi-products, chariot tires, blooms and other commodities. The complementarity of the two approaches is demonstrated. Bipartite bipyramidal semi-products made by assembling two crude masses of distinct origins are evidenced suggesting the existence of intermediate producing centres assembling products from different origins. Only the provenance of blooms and wheel-tires could be established as local. Two spheres of metal circulation were evidenced: prestige and local. Bipyramidal semi-products and chariot tires belong to different long distance distribution networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the ancient world beeswax and honey were of crucial importance not only for nutrition, but also for a range of activities including various artisanal practices. A rich body of iconographic and literary evidence has proven very informative, but archaeological data are strongly underrepresented in studies on ancient beekeeping. A multidisciplinary excavation project of the Etruscan trade center of Forcello near Bagnolo San Vito (Mantua province), led to the discovery of charred honeycombs in a workshop dated to 510-495 BCE. Morphoscopical, palynological and chemical analyses (IR, LC-MS, GC-MS) were conducted on these honeycombs and their associated materials (bee-breads and a mixture of melted honeycombs) in order to reconstruct beekeeping practices and the local environment. Palynological data indicate that honeybees were feeding on plants from both aquatic and ruderal landscapes. The palynological record from the bee-breads suggests the practice of itinerant beekeeping along rivers, an activity described by Pliny the Elder (Natural History, XXI.43.73) a few centuries later in relation to the town of Ostiglia (Mantua province) ca. 20 km downstream the investigated site. Hence, confirming the historical source, beekeeping in Iron Age Northern Italy appears to be characterized by a remarkably high degree of specialization. In addition, the pollen content of the melted honeycombs provides evidence for an unprecedented Vitis vinifera (grapevine) honey. The pollination syndrome suggests that bees fed on nectar of pre-domesticated or early-domesticated varieties of Vitis vinifera , confirming the archaeobotanical record of pips from Iron Age Northern Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composition of 2977 Late Prehistoric glass objects was investigated to derive information on the nature of the colourants used. 2673 Late Iron Age Celtic (La Tène) bracelet fragments from the Netherlands and Austria and 51 Early Iron Age beads from the Netherlands were analysed. Hand-held XRF analyses demonstrated that all glass objects were of the soda-silica-lime type, which has a presumed origin in the Eastern Mediterranean. Copper was used as colourant, in the form of copper filings, in most of the Early Iron Age glass beads to give recycled glass a blue-green colour. The vast majority (98%) of the translucent Iron Age glass, was coloured using cobalt (blue), manganese (purple; colourless), antimony (colourless) and iron (green). Manganese, however, was added to all glass, contributing additional amounts of elements like copper, cobalt and iron. Opaque decorations were produced using antimony, or a combination of tin and lead. REE analyses on a selection of representative objects indicate that the manganese ores in translucent glass are of hydrogenetic-diagenetic (Early Iron Age) or hydrothermally influenced diagenetic (Late Iron Age) types. Strontium isotope ratios show mixing between a calcite-related seawater source (0.709) and manganese ores with isotope ratios of ∼0.70766. Lead isotope ratios are dominated by colourant-derived Pb. The isotope ratios of the manganese used to produce translucent glass and lead used for opaque glass decorations fall in the same range. The most likely general provenance of both lies on Lavrion or the Western Cycladic Islands, although an origin in the central Taurus or the Sinai mountains cannot be excluded. The conclusion is that manganese ore used for colourants contributes significantly to the REE concentration in the glass, including Nd, as well as to Sr and Pb. This needs to be taken into account when using concentrations or isotope ratios of these elements for provenancing other raw materials like sand and calcium carbonate. This appears to be the case for all antique soda-lime-silica glass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identifies and interprets the proteins present on sherds from six ceramic mortuary vessels from a burial mound near the Heuneburg, an early Iron Age (750–400 BCE) hillfort in southwest Germany, using a novel adaptation of proteomic analysis that identified 166 proteins with high confidence. Surprisingly, among the identified proteins were peptides from Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), a pathogen previously unknown in this geographic region and time period, as well as peptides from human blood and tissues. These results highlight the first example of a viral cause of death of at least one high-status individual from the Iron Age west-central Europe and provide the first archaeological evidence for the interment of human organs in mortuary vessels in the region. We also demonstrate the suitability and value of a proteomics approach for discovery-based residue analysis of archaeological ceramic vessels and reveal how identification of adsorbed proteins can provide insight into prehistoric mortuary practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Provenance of metals is a major theme in Bronze Age archaeology since it can help to reveal complex cultural and economic entanglements in ancient times. However, where complex societies with diversified trading relationships are concerned, identifying metal provenance has often proved to be challenging due to the frequent mixing of metals from different sources in antiquity. This research addresses this question by developing an innovative method for interpreting lead isotope data of bronze artefacts. Manifold learning and a Bayesian mixing model are combined to reconstruct quantitatively the contribution of metal sources to ancient bronzes. The methodology is employed to resolve the complex metal circulation system in the Zhou period (11th-3rd century BC) of China, and reveals a significant diachronic change of metal resources from North, Central, and South China. The North China metal sources were mainly employed in the Early Western Zhou period (1046–950 BC). In the following ages, the Yangtze River Valley and Qinling Mountains became the major metal sources for Zhou people. The Middle Spring and Autumn period (660 BC-560 BC) witnessed a major shift of dependence between these two sources, demonstrating a fundamental transformation in the metal circulation system. The South China metal sources were exploited throughout the entire Zhou period and probably associated with polymetallic deposits in the Nanling area. This research reveals the long-term patterns of metal exploration and mixing in the Zhou period of China, and also demonstrates the great potential this new methodology promises in addressing the complex metal mixing history in other cultural contexts. • Resolving the isotopic mixing issue in the provenance research of archaeological bronzes. • A new methodology combining Manifold Learning and Bayesian Mixing Model to reconstruct the contribution of ore sources to bronze assemblages. • Revealing the long-term pattern of metal exploration and mixing in the Zhou period of China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study describes a methodology to uncover activity patterns obtained through surface survey. More specifically, we present a way to elicit and interpret pottery surface assemblages from Mallorca's Late Iron Age, the Balearic Period (550 -1 BCE) recovered during the 2014-18 seasons of the Landscape, Encounters and Identity Archaeological project (LEIAp). To achieve this goal, we derive a new binary (pseudo-) metric or dissimilarity coefficient that in combination with a spectral biclustering algorithm allows us to group areas on the landscape with similar pottery assemblages. This new metric better aligns with our intuition about the similarities between pottery assemblages than other well-known binary metrics. Careful examination of the composition of the groups obtained from clustering enables us to forward interpretations regarding activities that occurred at various non-monumental enclaves throughout the landscape. These results provide a more nuanced view of the landscape during this period of time, in particular, by exposing the existence of non-monumental domestic spaces and areas destined to transport and farming activities. • Intensive and systematic survey in Mallorca (Western Mediterranean). • Analysis of surface survey pottery using clustering techniques. • New dissimilarity coefficient to measure distance between pottery assemblages. • Interpretation of activity areas on the landscape. • Python for data analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes and tests the idea that a major change in technology associated with the grinding of cereals may account for changes in asymmetry in the upper arms of women in the Neolithic through Iron Age across a large area of Europe. It has been observed that bilateral asymmetry in humeral strength (i.e., polar section modulus) decreased to near zero in early agricultural females, but increased again during the Iron Age. These changes in asymmetry in females have been interpreted as the direct consequence of the adoption of the saddle quern at the start of the Neolithic and its subsequent replacement by the rotary quern in the Iron Age. To test the impact of these alternative cereal grinding methods, we tested the efficiency of saddle and rotary quern grinding with 16 female volunteers and the effect of grinding on muscle activity of the upper limb with 20 female volunteers. We used electromyography to measure muscle activity in the pectoralis , deltoideus , infraspinatus and triceps muscles and adjusted muscle activity for efficiency and muscle size. Saddle quern grinding was 4.3 times less efficient than rotary quern grinding and produced a significantly higher amount of coarse- and middle-grained flour but a significantly lower amount of very fine grained flour than rotary quern grinding. Saddle quern grinding showed symmetrical muscle activity in all four studied muscles, whereas rotary quern grinding yielded consistent directional asymmetry in a majority of muscles even during bimanual rotation. Saddle quern grinding required about twice as much muscle activity per kg of grain when adjusted for muscle size than rotary quern grinding. Our results support the view that saddle quern grinding may have played a major role in the decrease in directional asymmetry in humeral strength in early agricultural females and that the adoption of the rotary quern during the Iron Age may have increased humeral directional asymmetry mainly because of increased asymmetrical loading and the reduced time needed for grinding in favor of other manipulative tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excavations of the Phoenician and Punic layers at the site of Bir Massouda in Carthage have provided evidence for ferrous metallurgical activity spanning several centuries. Archaeometallurgical analyses of slagged tuyères, slag, and alloys using optical microscopy, portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (pXRF), and variable pressure scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (VPSEM-EDS) show that Carthaginian smiths were conducting primary smithing and forging of wrought iron and steel. Although the majority of slag specimens are remnant from ferrous production, a few select finds are from bronze recycling. The corpus represents the earliest known ferrous metallurgy in North Africa. As a Phoenician colony then later as an independent imperial metropolis, Carthage specialized in centrally organized ferrous technology at the fringes of the settlement in areas such as Bir Massouda and the Byrsa Hill from before 700 to 146 BC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iron Age (c. 700 BC–43AD) funerary practice has long been a focus of debate in British archaeology. Formal cemeteries are rare and in central-southern Britain human remains are often unearthed in unusual configurations. They are frequently recovered as isolated fragments, partially articulated body parts or complete skeletons in atypical contexts, often storage pits. In recent years, taphonomic analysis of remains has been more frequently employed to elucidate depositional practice (e.g. Madgwick, 2008, 2010; Redfern, 2008). This has enhanced our understanding of modes of treatment and has contributed much-needed primary data to the discussion. However, only macroscopic taphonomic analysis has been undertaken and equifinality (i.e. different processes producing the same end result) remains a substantial obstacle to interpretation. This research explores the potential of novel microscopic (histological) methods of taphonomic analysis for providing greater detail on the treatment of human remains in Iron Age Britain. Twenty human bones from two Iron Age sites: Danebury and Suddern Farm, in Hampshire, central-southern Britain were examined and assessed using thin section light microscopy combined with the Oxford Histological Index (OHI). Results suggest that diverse mortuary rites were practised and that different configurations of remains were subject to prescribed, varied treatment, rather than resulting from different stages of the same process. Practices that may be responsible for these patterns include exhumation followed by selective removal of elements and sheltered exposure prior to final burial. Only one sample provided evidence for excarnation, a practice that has been widely cited as a potential majority rite in Iron Age Britain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Faynan region in southern Jordan is the largest copper ore resource zone in the southern Levant and was exploited for these ores beginning ca. 8000 years BP. We discuss the relationship between nomadic populations and major copper smelting sites during the Iron Age (ca. 1200-500 BCE) based on mortuary excavations and toxic metal analyses at the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery, the largest Iron Age mortuary complex in southern Jordan. The Iron Age represents the first industrial revolution in this part of the Middle East. The study presented here is the first to employ chemical and isotopic measurements from a systematically excavated Iron Age mortuary population to determine exposure to Cu and Pb pollution and mobility patterns (based on Sr isotopes). We describe a methodology to control for post-depositional diagenetic uptake of chemical elements in human teeth recovered from the cemetery that has not previously been applied in Faynan in ancient pollution studies. The results suggest that most of the excess of Pb and Cu measured in tooth enamel samples were a product of post-depositional diagenetic addition. Our findings suggest that the majority of people buried at the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery were not exposed to metal pollution during their lives. The few individuals who were exposed to metal pollution exhibited a spectrum of traits indicative of lifestyle and social status. The results bring into question how severe the ancient pollution impacted the lives of the Iron Age population living in Faynan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the potential of oxygen stable isotope composition of Sparidae (sea-bream) tooth enamel phosphate (δ 18 O P ) as an indicator of the habitat in which the fish were captured. The isotopic compositions of Sparidae molariform teeth recovered from the coastal site of Tel Dor (northern coast of Israel), from a sequence dated to the 12th–7th centuries BCE and from modern samples were studied. The δ 18 O P values of the archaeological specimens exhibited a wide range of values, varying between 21.3 and 25.2 ± 0.2‰. While δ 18 O P values from the teeth dated to the 12th–9th centuries BCE resembled typical East Mediterranean coastal water, some of the later teeth, dated to the 9th–7th centuries BCE, exhibited higher values. The later values indicate tooth enamel deposition in a hyper-saline environment similar to δ 18 O P values of Sparidae observed at Bardawil Lagoon (Southeastern Mediterranean coast, east of the Suez Canal, Egypt). Prior to this study all Sparidae fish recovered at Tel Dor were regarded as evidence of local fishing activity. The current results exhibit, for the first time, that some of the Sparids may have been exported from the Bardawil Lagoon. We discuss, however, an alternative scenario, namely, the possible existence of saline lagoons near Tel Dor in antiquity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migration is a complex subject to approach in archeology and the new materials and methods available, such as isotope analysis and DNA, make it possible, and necessary, to ask new questions. The objective of this paper is to highlight the possibilities with using a new approach to migration on a population level by applying Bayesian mixing analysis of strontium isotopes. The selected case, the island of Öland in the Baltic, was based on 109 human samples dated to the Early (500 BC–AD 400, n = 71) and Late (AD 400–1050, n = 38) periods. The results from both periods demonstrate that the distribution of Strontium (Sr) is multimodal with several peaks not associated with the local variation. Our results show a large immigration to Öland from other geological areas, with 32% of the population in the Early period and 47% in the Late period being nonlocal. In order to unravel these distributions, we use a Bayesian mixing analysis. The Bayesian mixing analysis provides us with a mean to disentangle the distribution of Sr that is not uninformed. The gravity model, however simplistic, is relevant for explaining the strontium variation in the population in Öland both in the Early and Late period. Our results indicate a significant internal migration in Scandinavia that is increasing in the Late Iron Age at the same time as the Viking expansions (the more well studied external migration), which is usually the only migration discussed. We argue that the method proposed and tested on the case of Öland adds new perspectives for approaching migration patterns in general on a population level, a perspective that is hitherto lacking in archaeology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The South Caucasus was a major center of metal production in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. Nowhere is this more clear than in the hills and mountains in the southeastern Black Sea region (ancient Colchis), where exceptionally large numbers of metal production sites have been found. Chemical and microscopic analysis of slagged technical ceramics at these sites illuminates several aspects of both raw copper and tin bronze alloy production. Copper ores were smelted in a complex multi-stage process designed to extract metal from sulfide ores. Technical ceramics served as containers for a range of different reactions, from the first phase of smelting, in which the copper sulfides were likely consolidated into a matte, though later stages of matte processing and metal copper production in smaller crucibles. In addition, a single crucible fragment, recovered from a late 2nd millennium BC slag heap, demonstrates that tin bronze was created by the direct addition of cassiterite tin ore, probably of alluvial origin, to metallic copper. The crucible's context, the use of cassiterite ore rather than tin metal, and a review of local geology suggests that the tin used in this crucible came from nearby, with the most likely source being the Vakijvari and Bzhuzhi gorges roughly 10–15 km away. While a single fragment does not speak to the regularity of this practice, at the very least it raises the possibility that the Colchian bronze industry was based on local rather than imported tin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fabric of Iron Age pottery from Latvia has generally been analysed as a body consisting of clay and mineral inclusions. Sometimes, organic inclusions are also found in pottery, either naturally occurring or artificially incorporated. This study discusses Iron Age pottery fabric, specifically focussing on organic inclusions, which have previously not been adequately investigated in Latvia. We experimentally tested firing temperatures to establish the temperature limit for preservation of organic matter in pottery and tested a variety of organic materials in different proportions for the purpose of comparison with archaeological pottery, in order to ascertain the possible content of the fabric used in the hand-built pottery of the Middle and Late Iron Age (5th–12th centuries) in present-day Latvia. Pollen and non-pollen palynomorph analysis was applied with the aim of assessing the possible origin and composition of the organic matter in the archaeological pottery fabrics. The results of this study demonstrate that the dark colouration produced by organic matter in the core of the experimental ceramic fabric is preserved up to a temperature 700 °C. Pottery firing experiments show that chaff and flax shives left medium-to coarse-grained inclusions in the structure, resembling the archaeological pottery. On the other hand, experimental samples with seeds did not correspond exactly to any of the known ancient wares. The presence of spores of coprophilous fungi Sporormiella and Apiosordaria suggests that the fabric of a small number of Iron Age pottery samples analysed in the present study could possibly contain animal dung. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultural contact, exchange and interaction feature high in the list of challenging topics of current research on European Prehistory. Not far off is the issue of the changing role of monuments in the making and maintaining of key cultural devices such as memory and identity. Addressing both these highly-debated issues from a science-based perspective, in this paper we look at an unusual case study set in southern Iberia and illustrate how these archaeological questions can benefit from robust materials-science approaches. We present the contextual, morphological and analytical study of an exceptional Early Iron Age hoard composed of a number of different (and mostly exotic) materials such as amber, quartz, silver and ceramic. This hoard, found under the fallen orthostat of a megalithic structure built at least 2000 years earlier, throws new light on long-distance exchange networks and the effect they could have had on the cultural identities and social relations of local Iberian Early Iron Age communities. Moreover, the archaeometric study reveals how diverse and distant the sources of these item are (Northern Europe to Eastern and Western Mediterranean raw materials, as well as local and eastern technologies), therefore raising questions concerning the social mechanisms used to establish change and resistance in contexts of colonial encounter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct evidence for the intentional patination of metal objects is difficult to ascertain and therefore studies concerning this technique are controversial. Only a couple of objects with artificially patinated surfaces have been positively identified, ranging in date from the early 2nd millennium BC to Roman and medieval times. In this paper a skillfully crafted and coloured Early Iron Age bronze axe belonging to the Villanova culture of ancient Italy was selected for examination. Optical microscopy and multiple mineralogical analyses of the surface of this object demonstrate that it was patinated deliberately by a thermal treatment technology (thermal patination). So far, this Iron Age axe is the oldest European object where this technology had been applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Western Europe, at the turn of our era, the emergence of the Roman economic and agropastoral model is considered as the trigger for morphological changes experienced by livestock. This assumption is now undermined, reviving questions of the origin and mechanism of these changes as well as the influence of Gaul's agricultural particularities in the process. To investigate this question we used a geometric morphometric approach to study the phenotypic relationships of almost 600 dental remains of pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) from 11 Gallic and Italian sites, and pinpoint evidence of Roman or indigenous signature on the livestock. The comparison of these different samples allowed us to demonstrate that the link between the Roman and Gallic pigs is weak, and, more importantly, that each of the two territories seem to follow its own livestock management model. Furthermore, each region or settlement within Gaul adopted their own particular pastoral or supplying strategies; apart from two urban sites of central Gaul which showed clear phenotypic relationships with southern populations. These results suggest that the pigs' morphology depended mainly on agricultural and economic characteristics of the different territories, within Gaul and Italy, except perhaps on some urban sites with different supply strategies. It seems, therefore, that the changing economic environment impacted both provinces independently, or at least differently, since it cannot be excluded that there may have been some commercial relationships between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

3-dimensional visualizations are becoming a very useful tool in various archaeological contexts, from representations of individual artifacts to complex sites and architectural reconstructions. Useful as these applications are, what is often missing is the ability to illuminate detailed intra -site patterning. Here, we provide background on a pilot project that uses data derived from excavation records to create a 3D visualization focused on identifying new burial patterns within a single site. This project digitized burial data (location and artifact) from Tumulus 18 in the Speckhau mound group associated with the early Iron Age (700–400 BC) Heuneburg hillfort in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Based on the spatial data obtained from digitized excavation maps, topographic and locational data were entered into Esri's ArcScene to construct a 3D model of the mound prior to excavation as well as schematic representations of individual burials within the tumulus. Spatial and attribute data for both graves and artifacts were used to identify preliminary patterns of deposition and social relationships. We address the potential of this method of visualization for highlighting spatiotemporal patterns within burial mounds, and for generating research questions that have not been previously recognized using conventional mortuary analysis methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A geoarchaeological methodology for studying defensive moats is proposed that localises and reconstructs the evolution and formation processes of archaeological sites in NE Spain. This paper analyses three cases. Firstly, a moat at Puig Pelegrí, an Iberian site (Second Iron Age) where little infill is preserved in the moat, and therefore, the materials removed and deposited when the moat was excavated are analysed. Secondly, the stratigraphy of the infill of a moat at Cabezo de la Cruz (a well preserved site from the First Iron Age) is examined. Thirdly, a moat at Carrassumada (a highly eroded site from the Iberian period in the Second Iron Age) is analysed. The results presented in this paper highlight the importance of sedimentary contexts for understanding human occupation in semi-arid regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the potential of geometric morphometrics for the study of archaeological artefacts is recognised, quantitative evaluations of the concordance between such methods and traditional typology are rare. The present work seeks to fill this gap, using as a case study a corpus of 154 complete ceramic vessels from the Bibracte oppidum (France), the capital of the Celtic tribe Aedui from the Second Iron Age. Two outline-based approaches were selected: the Elliptic Fourier Analysis and the Discrete Cosine Transform. They were combined with numerous methods of standardisation/normalisation. Although standardisations may use either perimeter or surface, the resulting morphospaces remain comparable, and, interestingly, are also comparable with the morphospace built from traditional typology. Geometric morphometrics also present the advantage of being easily implemented and automated for large sets of artefacts. The method is reproducible and provides quantitative estimates, such as mean shape, and shape diversity of ceramic assemblages, allowing objective inferences to be statistically tested. The approach can easily be generalised and adopted for other kinds of artefacts, to study the level of production standardisation and the evolution of shape over space and time, and to provide information about material and cultural exchanges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeological network analysts often represent archaeological data as static networks and explore their structure. However, most networks changed through time and static network representations do not allow archaeologists to test assumptions about the dynamic processes driving this change. The study of visibility networks in archaeology is a good example of this. Archaeologists propose hypotheses of the role of lines of sight between settlements, which imply dynamic processes for the establishment of the observed visibility networks. However, commonly used methods do not allow us to evaluate these hypotheses. In this paper we introduce exponential random graph modelling (ERGM) as a method for bridging static and dynamic approaches to interpreting visibility networks. This method offers a number of advantages: (1) it explicitly addresses the assumptions inherent in visibility network creation about what relationships between nodes mean and the types of processes they allow for; (2) it allows one to investigate the range of network structures that these assumptions give rise to; and (3) it explores the dynamic processes that might have led to observed networks. This method is used to evaluate hypotheses of the role of lines of sight in facilitating visual control and communication during the later Iron Age in Southern Spain. This study shows that ERGMs can be used as a reflective technique to evaluate competing hypotheses, and that ERGM results subsequently require more contextualised evaluation. Future work on ERGMs should focus on incorporating geographical constraints to further enhance its potential for studying visibility networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates water and land usage in the territory of La Carència, an Ibero-Roman city located near Turís (Valencia, Spain) in Eastern Iberia. The outstanding political importance of La Carència during the Iberian Iron-Age period is attested by its large size, the monumental character of its structures and on-site finds. Multidisciplinary and micro-regional landscape work at its territory documented significant differences between the Iberian and the Roman settlement patterns, which are attributed to the distinct agricultural production and water management systems of each period. While Iberian sites are more related to the agricultural exploitation of flat, dry land for which water sources, such as natural springs, were probably used, Roman sites seem to be associated with more productive soils that take advantage of flooding areas and the drainage of water accumulation zones. Such different agricultural preferences based on large-scale water management are documented for the first time in the Iberian Peninsula and they attest to the great potential of multidisciplinary landscape archaeology to address past land-use practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotope ratios have been widely used to infer past diets, domestication and husbandry practices of pigs, but few studies have addressed the proper baselines for such inferences. We analysed the diet of pig Sus scrofa from stable isotope analysis of carbon (δ 13 C) and nitrogen (δ 15 N) values of collagen from, urban Bergen, Norway (1300–1400AD). These were compared with values from Skipshelleren (5500BC–200AD); and from other medieval sites in NW Europe. Results indicated that the pigs from Bergen ate a very high proportion of marine protein compared to pigs and wild boar from Skipshelleren who ate a diet primarily of plant material. Results from other medieval sites in NW Europe show considerable variation in δ 13 C and δ 15 N values, indicating large variations in diet. However, none of the values are consistent with a diet wholly dominated by plant material; and therefore pig husbandry through outspan herding (pannage) without supplementary feeding. We question interpretations to the contrary, which neglect the role of known differences in dietary fractionation between species in producing δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of tissue. Data from domestic pigs of ancient breeds undoubtedly raised by outspan herding/pannage are so far unavailable and would be instructive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many of the arguments for how and why people began to use iron in Southwest Asia rely on assumptions about the technology and relative organization of copper and iron smelting. However, research on the technological transformations of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age suffers from a lack of investigation of primary metal production contexts, especially in regions outside the Levant. The current research examines metal production debris from a large number of smelting sites in western Georgia, and addresses questions of technology and resource utilization through detailed examination of few select sites. Through the chemical and mineralogical analysis of slag samples, we demonstrate the existence of an extensive copper-production industry and reconstruct several key aspects of the smelting technology during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Combining a statistical analysis of slag mineralogy with other lines of evidence, we argue that copper was extracted from sulfide ores through a process of roasting and smelting in deep pit furnaces. The data also suggest that metalworkers at different sites exploited different ore sources within the same ore body. These results form a fundamental basis for further examination of spatial and chronological patterns of technological variation, with implications for models of Near Eastern copper production in this crucial period. Intriguing evidence of bloomery iron smelting, though currently undated, reinforces the region's potential to provide data on a key technological transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the summer of 2011, a geophysical survey with subsequent magnetic anomaly testing was conducted in Northwest Iberia, in the province of Galicia, Spain, the most extensive evaluation of its kind to be performed on a Castro Culture hill fort with distinct Bronze and Iron Age occupations. The investigation focused on determining the spatial extent, occupation, and use of the multicomponent Bronze and Iron Age hill fort site(s) of Castros de Neixón. A Geoscan Research FM36 Fluxgate Gradiometer was used successfully to measure and identify magnetic anomalies interpreted as potential archaeological features within the occupation areas. Over 400 monopole and dipole magnetic anomalies were detected, many of which have been interpreted as representing pits, ditches, palisades, hearths and a possible corral. A parallel defensive ditch with zig-zag entrance was located north of the occupation at Castro de Neixón Grande. Subsurface testing of a promising monopole anomaly revealed a large storage pit with artifacts dating to the Castro period. New research since the 1990s has opened up traditional discussions linking the characteristic architecture of defensive walls and round structures (after which the Castro Culture was named) to a warrior-elite society, to more complex interpretations related to the intensification of agriculture and corresponding increase in sedentism. These new interpretations integrate domestic and agricultural features into Castro subsistence practices, including storage pits. Our results support these interpretations, revealing the extent to which storage pits are a dominant feature type at Castros de Neixón. Future research and subsurface excavations directed at understanding under-investigated features located via geophysical survey techniques at sites like Castros de Neixón may clarify questions surrounding Castro Culture social organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper presents the first record of fatty acids recovered from archaeological sediment samples in Southeast Asia. Fatty acid analysis in archaeology provides a good source of evidence for the identification and interpretation of prehistoric dietary patterns by identifying organic remains of animal and plant foods. Prehistoric hard floor sediment samples excavated from prehistoric sites of Ban Non Wat and Nong Hua Raet located in the upper catchment of the Mun River valley in Thailand, were analysed for this study. The samples are from compressed sediment features identified during excavation as ‘floors’ and interpreted as some form of living or working surfaces, dated to the Iron Age and Neolithic periods, around 2000 BC–AD 500. Triglycerides were extracted in hexane, derivatized to fatty acid methyl esters and analysed using Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Twenty fatty acids, including saturated and unsaturated counterparts, were identified in the hard floor sediments. Comparison with control samples indicate that the floor samples have distinctive fatty acid assemblages, interpreted to relate to the anthropogenic activity associated with the formation of the floors. Results suggest that many of the fatty acids are mainly of degraded animal origin, possibly from ruminants, including cow and deer. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A collection of 157 copper alloy artefacts from the necropolis of Palaepaphos Skales, located in south-west Cyprus, dating to the 11th-8th centuries BC, was studied and chemically analysed with a handheld pXRF instrument to determine the alloy type that was used for their production. The collection consists of Cu–Sn binary alloys. The relative concentration of the two metals seems to have been determined by the type of artefact the alloy was used to produce. The results also imply that fresh rather than recycled metal was used. The majority of the artefacts are made of a bronze with an average tin content of 8.1 ± 2.2%. There is, however, a group of objects with a characteristic golden surface, under the patina, which was found to have a significantly higher tin concentration, that averages 18.6 ± 2.8% Sn. The lead content in the assemblage ranges from 0.1 to 2.6%. Because lead concentration in local Cypriot ores is unusually low, its presence is interpreted as a deliberate addition even at these low concentrations. The iron content ranges from 0.1 to 1.4%, while zinc is present only in 20 artefacts, exhibiting a concentration range of 0.2–1%. Both elements are believed to be non-intentional additions to the alloys, resulting from the smelting process and originating in the copper ores (which are sulphidic and closely associated with sphalerite). Arsenic is detected in 25 artefacts, in a concentration of 0.2%. The limited amount of arsenic in only a few of the artefacts under study may be the result of the use of polymetallic ores from the area of Limassol Forest, the only Cypriot ores where low amounts of arsenic can be detected, or can be interpreted as evidence for the possible use of recycled metal deriving from artefacts dating to the Early and Middle Bronze Age. The present study provides significant evidence concerning the continuity of the use of bronze with high tin content in the area of Palaepaphos throughout the Early Iron Age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Cooking installations are among the most abundant features in Bronze and Iron Age archaeological sites in the southern Levant, yet until now their study has been mostly descriptive. We present a study of 11 purported archaeological cooking installations from three different Bronze and Iron Age sites in Israel in which we deployed a variety of microarchaeological techniques. We provide direct physical evidence, based on Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy demonstrating that the archaeological installations were operated with temperatures as high as 900 °C. Using this technique we also demonstrate that all the mud-constructed installations studied by us were internally-fueled and therefore should be identified as Tannurs rather than the externally- fueled Tabuns. We studied in detail the quantities of ash-related microscopic remains, including opaline phytoliths, calcitic wood ash pseudomorphs and dung spherulites. We show that phytolith morphotype analysis cannot distinguish between wood-dominated and dung-dominated fuel materials, while a newly developed method that calculates the ratio of ash pseudomorphs to dung spherulites (PSR method) makes such a distinction possible. Moreover, we experimented with the effect of partial dissolution on fuel ash PSR values and utilize the results to explain taphonomy and diagenesis associated with two types of archaeological cooking installations – pebble hearths and baking ovens. In addition, we identified micromorphological criteria that can be used to assess whether ash deposits in or above a cooking installations are in situ and/or disturbed. Taken together, all lines of evidence used in this study indicate that wood was the major fuel material across time and space in the studied archaeological contexts, while dung was a secondary source of fuel. This observation also cross-cuts different culture-historical entities (Philistines, Canaanites, Israelites and Egyptians). In addition, wood was preferred as fuel irrespective of environmental differences among the studied sites. This study is yet another demonstration of the value of integrating microarchaeological techniques and approaches to traditional macroscopic archaeology. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The close association of metal ingots to the smelting operation and hence to the ore deposit makes them good candidates for provenance studies which in turn can be used for reconstructing paths of metal trade. A unique group of ingots from Hazor, Israel and two ingot groups retrieved during underwater explorations off the Carmel coast (Israel) were subjected to microstructure, chemical and lead isotope analysis. Ingots from Timna, Bir Nasib and Deir Alla, previously studied, were also subjected to bulk chemical and lead isotope analysis (LIA). The results enabled us to follow changes in the supply of copper to sites of this part of the Levant between two main copper producers: Cyprus and the Arabah (Timna and Faynan). The analyses showed that two of the ingot assemblages correspond to two different phases of Cypriot copper exportation in the second millennium BCE. The earlier phase, identified here for the first time, dated to the Middle Bronze Age II – Late Bronze Age I, consisted of trade in black copper in the form of relatively small plano-convex ingots, as suggested by the evidence from Hazor. The later phase, dated to the Late Bronze Age II, during which Cypriot copper was traded in the form of large oxhide–shaped ingots, is well-known and is evidenced by oxhide ingots recovered off the Carmel coast. A third assemblage from Neve Yam, off the same coast, consisting of 54 ingots of similar shape and composition, is identified here as the hitherto unknown product of the large-scale operations at Faynan in the Iron Age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Thousands of first-millennium BCE ivory carvings have been excavated from Neo-Assyrian sites in Mesopotamia (primarily Nimrud, Khorsabad, and Arslan Tash), hundreds of miles from their Levantine production contexts. At present, their specific manufacture dates and workshop localities are unknown. Relying on subjective, visual methods, scholars have grappled with their classification and regional attribution for over a century. This study combines visual approaches with machine learning techniques to offer data-driven perspectives on the classification and attribution of this Iron Age corpus. The study sample consists of 162 sculptures of female figures that have been conventionally attributed to three main regional carving traditions: “Phoenician,” “North Syrian,” and “Syrian/South Syrian”. We have developed an algorithm that clusters the ivories based on a combination of descriptive and anthropometric data. The resulting categories, which are based on purely statistical criteria, show good agreement with conventional art historical classifications, while revealing new insights, especially with regard to the “Syrian/South Syrian” tradition. Specifically, we have determined that objects of the Syrian/South Syrian tradition might be more closely related to Phoenician objects than to North Syrian objects. We also reconsider the classification of a subset of “Phoenician” objects, and we confirm Syrian/South Syrian stylistic subgroups, the geographic distribution of which might illuminate Neo-Assyrian acquisition networks. Additionally, we have identified the features in our cluster assignments that might be diagnostic of regional traditions. In short, our study both corroborates traditional visual classifications and demonstrates how machine learning techniques may be employed to retrieve complementary information not accessible through an exclusively visual analysis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Spiral decorated Iron Age Scottish glass beads are a group of highly decorated objects about which very little is known. Despite considerable debate in the past, their technical complexity and elaborate design have always hindered the understanding of their method of production. The innovative application of X-ray micro-computed-tomography (μCT), with synchrotron light, rendered detailed information of the internal structure of selected artefacts, allowing for the investigation of features relating to manufacture. The 3D imaging not only permitted the identification of characteristic features and markings typical of specific low temperature glass-working techniques, but also added to the evidence for local manufacture and allowed conclusions to be drawn on the pyro-technological development of the ancient communities that produced them. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present a spatial interaction entropy maximizing and structural dynamics model of settlements from the Middle Bronze Age (MBA) and Iron Ages (IA) in the Khabur Triangle (KT) region within Syria. The model addresses factors that make locations attractive for trade and settlement, affecting settlement growth and change. We explore why some sites become relatively major settlements, while others diminish in the periods discussed. We assess how political and geographic constraints affect regional settlement transformations, while also accounting for uncertainty in the archaeological data. Model outputs indicate how the MBA settlement pattern contrasts from the IA for the same region when different factors affecting settlement size importance, facility of movement, and exogenous site interactions are studied. The results suggest the importance of political and historical factors in these periods and also demonstrate the value of a quantitative model in explaining emergent settlement size distributions across landscapes affected by different socio-environmental causal elements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Swiss Basel-Gasfabrik site represents an important Celtic settlement of urban character. Two species of intestinal parasites, Trichuris sp. and Ascaris sp., were identified in micromorphological thin sections from settlement pits. Species identification is complicated by taphonomic effects as well as the random representation of samples and cuts. Parasite eggs are encountered within and beyond original depository contexts due to water displacement and bioturbation. Our findings introduce micromorphology as a new means of paleoparasitological research which augments classical procedures. It captures parasite remains directly in their original microstratigraphic setting, thus providing information not to be obtained by classical flotation. Our observations are relevant for the selection of suitable sampling sites, sampling strategies, and methods of recovery and identification of paleoparasitological data in archeological sediments. They create new insights into site specific parasite dispersal and living conditions in the Late Iron Age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: 87Sr/86Sr isotopic analysis was performed on 95 cattle teeth from the Iron Age and Roman rural site of Owslebury (Hampshire). This constitutes one of largest strontium (Sr) isotopic projects in Roman archaeology and the first ever dealing with Iron Age cattle. The Sr isotopic signal of Middle Iron Age cattle is consistent with a local Sr signature, while in the Late Iron Age and, even more so, in both Roman phases cattle were introduced to the site from a greater variety of geographic areas. Although it is not possible to track down the exact origin of these introduced cattle, some must have travelled substantial distances (70 km and more). The widening of the market illustrated by our study is consistent with artefactual evidence from the site, indicating an increase in trade in the Late Iron Age, which is further emphasised in the Roman period. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]