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Two experiments evaluated the effect of commitment on paper recycling. Using an ABA design, Experiment I asked 24 individuals in a retirement home to sign a 4-week group commitment pledge to recycle paper. During this intervention, the subjects recycled 47% more paper than they had during baseline. They continued to recycle at this level during a 4-week follow-up period, when the group commitment was removed. Experiment 2 evaluated the relative effectiveness of group commitment, individual commitment, and token reinforcers on paper recycling in a college dormitory. The students in all three experimental conditions recycled from three to five times more paper than those in the control group during the 4-week intervention. However, in the 3-week follow-up period, when the treatments were removed, only the individually committed subjects continued to recycle significantly more paper than the controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we investigate the role of different perspectives people take on their past moral and nonmoral behavior. Across two experiments, we show that when people focus on progress toward personal goals, past moral behavior leads to less future moral striving compared to past nonmoral behavior. However, when people focus on commitment toward personal goals, past moral behavior tends to lead to more future moral striving compared to past nonmoral behavior. Our results integrate seemingly contradictive empirical evidence from past research, relying on the overarching theoretical framework of goal regulation theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When testing for the existence of choice-induced changes in preferences, one is faced with the combined problem that the preferences are measured imperfectly and that the choice reflects the true preferences. The upshot is that the choice yields information about any measurement errors, implying that the choice may predict a change in measured preferences. Previous studies have neglected this effect, interpreting a change in measured preferences as a change in true preferences. This paper argues that the problems with previous studies can be mitigated by eliciting more information about the preferences of the participants prior to the choices. The paper reports results from a novel experiment, where the evidence does not support the existence of a choice-induced change in preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an examination of the relationship between satisfaction with one's supervisor and organizational commitment type based on data collected from nonmanagerial employees. The results show that moral and alienative forms of commitment were related to employees' satisfaction with their supervisors and that calculative commitment was not related. Supervisor behaviors related to moral commitment include consistency of behavior toward subordinates, showing concern for career progress, backing up employees with other managers, and employees' satisfaction with the supervisor's technical competence. Supervisor behaviors related to alienative commitment include the way one's supervisor treats an individual when he or she makes a mistake, the way the supervisor shows concern for one's career progress, and the way one's job responsibilities are defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examined how the response of employees and organizations to the mutual influences between work and other domains was related to 2 forms of organizational commitment (OC): commitment to the local unit and commitment to the head office. All 720 employees of a school district in Western Canada were surveyed by mail questionnaires. Three hundred usable questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 42%. The findings showed that nonwork domain variables affected OC. Positive nonwork-to-work spillover and organizational responses to nonwork, namely separation and respect, were related to commitment to the head office and individual coping strategies were related to commitment to the local unit. The paper concludes with conceptual implications regarding research on OC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research and theory are reviewed which consider two decision biases: escalation of commitment and decision framing. Some authors (Bazerman, 1986; Whyte, 1986) have suggested that escalation of commitment may be explained by the decision framing used in the research paradigms. A study was conducted which simultaneously manipulated both responsibility for a prior decision and decision frame. Results show a main effect on resource allocation for responsibility and no effect for decision frame. A follow-up study found that amount of information provided systematically affected the framing bias, and that when responsibility was added to a large amount of contextual information, the framing effect became nonsignificant. These results suggest a need to further examine the boundary conditions of framing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Escalation of commitment describes the continuation of a course of action in spite of drawbacks and continuing insecurity of goal achievement. To prevent escalation and its associated costs, de-escalation techniques are valuable. The present study investigates predecisional accountability to an unknown audience as a de-escalation technique. In addition, the evolution of cognitive processes (reasons for persisting) during escalation is examined. As predicted, predecisional accountability has a de-escalating effect. In addition, escalation is accompanied by an increase of nonrational reasons for continuing the respective course of action, and decision makers without accountability provide more nonrational reasons for not quitting than those who are held accountable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'evoking freedom' technique is a verbal compliance procedure that solicits someone to comply with a request by simply telling them they are free to accept or to refuse the request. The measure of the efficiency of this technique on compliance with large samples and the evaluation of its influence on various requests was tested in the first set of experiments. This technique was found to be efficient in increasing the number of people who agreed to give money to a requester, the number of smokers who agreed to give a cigarette, passersby who agreed to respond to a survey, and homeowners who agreed to buy pancakes. In the second set of experiments in which the mode of interaction between the requester and the person solicited was tested, the 'evoking freedom' technique was found to be associated with greater compliance with a request addressed by mail and through face-to-face, phone-to-phone, or computer-mediated interaction. The third set of experiments tested the effect of semantic variations of the 'evoking freedom' technique and the weight of the repetition of the semantic evocation of freedom. These later experiments that used various phrases evoking the freedom to comply were found to be associated with greater compliance. Moreover, a double evocation of freedom was associated with even greater compliance than a single evocation. The importance of this technique for commitment communication is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationship between individual-level values, using Schwartz's theory, and organizational and occupational commitment among Israeli Arabs. The sample includes 369 Arab teachers working in 14 schools in Arab communities in the north of Israel, with a response rate of 65%. The findings show a significant effect of 2 values—benevolence and conformity—on most organizational and occupational commitment dimensions, above and beyond the effect of demographic variables. The specific relationships found here are attributed to the characteristics of the sample. Implications of the findings for continuing research on this issue are emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Workplace bullying includes behaviors such as harassing, offending, or socially excluding the target. This study examines whether the relationship between workplace bullying and intention to leave is mediated by affective commitment. Based on data from 142 schoolteachers in China, a partial least squares analysis revealed that affective commitment partially mediates the effect of bullying on intention to leave. Furthermore, the direct effect of bullying on intention to leave is stronger than the indirect effect. Theoretical and practical implications include that awareness needs to be raised about what constitutes bullying behavior and that more emphasis needs to be placed on preventing bullying in the workplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined additive effects of various types of person–job and person–organization fit. Although numerous studies have investigated the correlates of various fit types, little research has examined whether the effects of different fit types are additive or convergent. The effects of multiple fit perceptions on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions were examined. Results indicate additive effects of person–job and person–organization fit perceptions on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The effects of person–job fit perceptions on turnover intentions were also additive. However, person–organization and person–job fit had convergent effects on turnover intention. Results indicate that managers must pay attention to various fit types for positive job attitudes and to reduce turnover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University students who were involved in a community service field placement completed the Inventory of Service Experience (ISE), a measure that was designed to assess the extent to which they felt supported by family, friends, and the organizations with which they worked; and the extent to which they experienced positive outcomes (e.g., enhanced skills, a feeling of “having made a difference”) in their community service setting. Students who had a more supportive and positive experience, as assessed by the ISE, were more likely to have continued to work as volunteers in the setting 2 months after they had completed their course requirements. The implications of these results for community service programs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a stressor-strain framework, this research examined the role of supervisory support at 2 organizational levels in the relationship between the work stressor of interpersonal conflict and organizational commitment in a military sample. In all analyses, supervisory support at both levels was conceptualized and modeled as a shared group attribute. Results indicated that perceptions of interpersonal conflict within the organization were related negatively to both affective and continuance commitment, Support from both first-line supervisors and midlevel managers was related to employees' affective commitment. First-line supervisor support was related also to employees' continuance commitment. Furthermore, midlevel management support attenuated the relationship between interpersonal conflict and continuance commitment. Implications for the assessment of different levels of supervisory support, different variants of organizational commitment, and interpersonal conflict are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on the organizational-politics (Kacmar & Baron, 1999) and social-identity (Hogg & Terry, 2000) literatures, we examined the moderating effect of work identity on the organizational-politics/organizational-commitment relationship. Data collected from 500 employees of a data-reporting organization and 943 employees of a customer-service organization indicate that employees who identified primarily with their occupations were less affected by the level of perceived politics in the organization in the consideration of their commitment than were employees who identified primarily with their employing organizations or one of its units. Implications for research and management practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between goal orientation, self-efficacy, perceived ability, effort, commitment, exertion, feedback tolerance, and process/outcome measures were investigated in 4 studies. In Study 1, feedback (win, lose, win/lose) in a competitive task (accuracy of dart throws) was manipulated. Results showed dart accuracy performance correlated significantly with ego orientation when feedback was positive (win opponent), but not when negative (lose) or alterable (lose/win). Self-efficacy and perceived ability after task familiarity predicted performance in all feedback conditions. In Study 2, a computer-simulated running task was performed by participants under 3 feedback modes (win, lose, win/lose) nested within 2 conditions (self-standard and against an opponent). Results indicated that ego more than task orientation accounted for the performance variance in all experimental conditions. Self-efficacy and task-specific psychological states accounted for 63% to 68% of the performance variance. In Studies 3 and 4, exertion time in strength and endurance tasks were related to the type of activity in which participants were engaged and their commitment and exertion tolerance in the specific tasks. Goal orientation and self-efficacy accounted for much of the exertion-time variables' variance, but they were not significant predictors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, individuals and interacting 3-person groups were asked to make a series of allocation decisions using a modified version of the A&S decision case (Slaw, 1976). Based on the choice-shift effect, it was hypothesized that groups would allocate more to a failing course of action than would individuals, and that these differences would emerge only after repeated sequential decisions. Both hypotheses were supported. These findings suggest that processes unique to groups account for the greater allocations of groups, relative to individuals in escalation situations. The implications of these findings in applied settings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study used the first wave of a quasi-experimental panel study of Russian military officers (N = 1,798) to assess what happens during the waiting period after notification of release. Procedural, interactional, and distributive justice variables were incorporated into a model of the stress process. Effects on organizational commitment, outcome evaluation, anxiety, depression, and hostility were assessed. Interactional justice (Bies, 1987)--respect shown to the departing officer--was both an effect of downsizing (leavers reported receiving greater respect than stayers perceived them to get) and a moderator of downsizing's impact (respect buffered the stress process more among leavers). The negative effects of leaving were also buffered by duration of service, but were exacerbated by combat experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research tests a hypothesized model of the relationships among several individual differences and variables associated with the setting of goals. Participants were randomly assigned to a self-set goal condition, or to moderately or very-difficult assigned-goal conditions. By aggregating scores of performance, personal goals, ratings of self-efficacy, and goal commitment over multiple goal-setting and task-performance occasions, the overall relationships among these variables and need for achievement, self esteem, and locus of control were determined. Results provide strong support for Locke and Latham's (1990a, 1990b) model of the goal-performance relation, but fail to support the hypothesized role of individual differences. The implications of these findings and individual differences in goal-setting situations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hypothesis that identity commitment affects the experience of identity-related stressors brings identity theory and social stress research together. Research findings are not yet conclusive regarding this hypothesis. Part of the contradictory research findings stem from inadequate knowledge about the causal direction of the relationship between depression and commitment. The authors analyze if identity commitment interacts with social stress in its impact on mental well-being. Only chronic stress has a moderate impact on the experience of depression. Commitment toward the gay identity did not buffer the experience of stress. The authors use a nonrecursive model to establish to causal relationship between depression and commitment. They show that it is depression that lowers identity commitment. It is concluded that identity commitment cannot act as a buffer against identity-related stress because commitment is affected by the resulting distress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of feedback equivocality on escalation of commitment were examined in a laboratory study. Subjects had multiple opportunities to allocate money to market a software product. During the initial phase, subjects received feedback that was of either low or high equivocality. Half of the subjects in each equivocality level were given a standard by which to judge the feedback. In the second phase, all subjects received negative feedback. Consistent with Bowen's (1987) decision dilemma theory, subjects who received low equivocality feedback did not escalate allocations, and subjects who received high equivocal feedback escalated allocations. The presence of a standard or goal attenuated escalation. These results are consonant with a dynamic, temporally based account of escalation and are discussed in a synthesis of the literatures in behavior analysis, economics, forecasting, and psychology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is assessed by measuring how frequently employees display extra-role and discretionary behaviors. One hundred forty-four managerial employees responded to an OCB scale and indicated the number of behaviors on the scale they believed to be formally evaluated. None of the behaviors were believed to be unevaluated by all employees. Data suggest that a typical OCB scale is not measuring citizenship behaviors for everybody, and that OCB measurement needs refinement. Best prediction of other organizational variables was obtained when both the OCB and an index of "unevaluated" behaviors were used as predictors. Supervisor fairness interacted with OCB when predicting organizational commitment, and this interaction was contingent on the extent OCBs were believed to be unevaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceptions and reactions to inequity may hinge on referents of comparison and also on employees' rank in the organization. This study examined how three comparison referents--internal same-rank, external same-rank and external whole-organization--and respondents' hierarchical status in the company influence perceptions of inequity. The study also examined the relationship of perceived inequity with affect, job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, and stress. Seventy-five employees randomly selected from the three hierarchical levels of a manufacturing company (managers, supervisors, and workers) were the respondents. Results suggest that when individuals made comparisons with external same-rank and external whole-organization referents they experienced more inequity than when they made internal same-rank comparisons. Managers in comparison to supervisors and workers perceived less inequity related to pay, general rules administration, promotion, company and fringe benefits, advancement opportunities, and social power. Perception of inequity was found to be negatively related to job involvement, job satisfaction, and affect, and positively related to stress. Results implicate the role of social comparison referents in the evaluation of organizational rewards and perceptions of inequity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to provide a partial test of the Hollenbeck and Klein (1987) model of goal commitment. Four variables from that model (reward structure, social influence, type-A behavior, and self-esteem) were examined as to their relationships with the expectancy and attractiveness of goal attainment and goal commitment. The results, based on 88 college students performing an anagram task, were generally supportive. Significant person by situation interactions were also observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seventy-seven undergraduates were assigned a performance goal for the first of two trials of a word game, and set goals for themselves on a second trial. Goal commitment was hypothesized to moderate the influence of goal level on performance within both trials. In addition, commitment to the assigned Trial I goals was hypothesized to moderate the relationship between goal attainment and self-set goals for the second trial. Subjects' initial performance on a practice trial was also hypothesized to interact with the goal levels they were assigned on the first trial, such that individuals who performed relatively well on the practice trial were expected to evidence a greater positive relationship between goal level and performance than individuals who performed relatively poorly on the practice trial. The results of three moderated regression analyses yielded no support for the hypothesized within-trial moderating influence of goal commitment on goal level-performance relations. However, commitment to assigned goals and goal attainment did interact as related to personal goals for Trial 2. Further, the hypothesized influence of practice trial performance and assigned goal level on Trial 1 performance was supported. The results are discussed in terms of how goal levels should be determined and assigned to employees, and the role of goal commitment in goal setting predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the moderating effects of role stressors on the relationship between initial work assignment satisfaction and organizational commitment. Moderated multiple regression analyses on data collected from 76 employees of an American military Research and Development (R&D) laboratory indicated that initial work assignment satisfaction accounted for little variance in commitment among workers low in role conflict but considerable variance among workers high in role conflict. However, role ambiguity had no moderating effect on the initial work assignment satisfaction-commitment relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore the relationship between mood and cognitive restraints to suicide, 98 undergraduates experienced the Velten mood-induction procedure to induce an elated, depressed, or neutral (unchanged) mood. They then completed the Multiple Adjective Affect Checklist, the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Reasons for Living Inventory. Surpnsingly, compared to neutral students, depressed students reported more overall reasons for living, greater feelings of responsibility to family, and more moral objections to suicide, and elated students reported more feelings of responsibility to family. Most responsive depressed students also had higher fear of suicide than others, and most responsive elated students had higher survival and coping beliefs than others. Results suggest that a mildly depressed mood caused students' increased reliance on cognitive beliefs about not committing suicide, and may indicate that mildly depressed persons might benefit from and be particularly receptive to cognitive interventions stressing beliefs about family and religious commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral commitment levels of group members were examined under conflict of interests between individual and collective tasks in a work-group scenario. Commitment was conceptualized as the amount of time and effort resources that individuals chose to allocate to the group task. Seventeen groups of three allocated 100 time and effort resource units to individual and group tasks for each of four trials. The level of commitment to group work increased, partially because over-rewarded persons increased group contributions more than underrewarded persons decreased them. However, the variance of allocations to the group task did not decrease over trials. Potential implications of the findings for organizational research and practice concerning work groups are discussed in terms of the roles of equity, comparative referent use, and information exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined which motivation needs and job variables are associated with Type A/B behavior pattern for working women and men, and to what degree, if any, can these variables be used as predictors of Type A/B behavior pattern for each sex. Subjects were 797 working men and women (female, n = 439; male, n = 358) in 34 organizations in a metropolitan city in the West. Results showed that for both Type A women and men, the most significant factors were high levels of need for power, job commitment and hierarchical position. Job satisfaction was a significant predictor of Type B behavior pattern for both sexes. Need for achievement was a significant predictor of Type A behavior pattern for women but not for men. Age, working for a profit or nonprofit company, and level of education were significant predictors of Type A/B behavior for men but were not important contributors for women. Substantial differences between managers and nonmanagers were reported both within and between genders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two laboratory experiments were designed to examine the effects of commitment to a performance goal on the level of effort exerted to achieve the goal. In both experiments, college students worked on two memorization tasks and, after receiving performance feedback on the first task, commitment to either an easy or a more difficult goal for the second task was varied. In the first experiment, goal commitment was manipulated either by giving the students perceived choice over setting their goal or by assigning them to one of the two goal levels. In the second experiment, goal commitment was manipulated by publicly identifying students' goals or by keeping the goals private. To assess effort, participants were allowed to spend as little or as much time as they desired studying for the second task. In both experiments, the commitment manipulations (high choice or public identification) led to significantly greater persistence in studying, regardless of the goal level. In addition, high-commitment subjects tended to be more successful in reaching their goals than low-commitment subjects. These experiments suggest that commitment to a goal has motivational properties that prompt an increase in effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Persuasive communication and public commitment were used to encourage recycling in a citywide program. The persuasive communication was a combination of factors which have been found by laboratory researchers to produce attitude and/or behavior change. The public commitment manipulation involved signing a statement supportive of recycling. Households which did not recycle during a 6-week baseline period were selected for experimental study. Trained Boy Scouts made an oral informational statement and then gave each of 201 experimental households one of three treatments (a written persuasive communication, public commitment, or both). A control group of 132 homes received no treatment. Recycling was observed for 6 weeks following delivery of all treatments. Results indicated that the three treatment groups recycled significantly more than the control group but did not differ significantly from each other. Future directions for applied work in this domain are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]