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SUMMARY A study was conducted to evaluate bedding source and the inclusion of rolled, unheated soybeans on the growth performance of male turkeys when reared to market age. Pine shavings are the most common poultry bedding material, however recently, increased marketplace competition has significantly reduced its availability and necessitated the need for economical alternatives. Additionally, the development of new varieties of soybeans with low levels of antinutritional factors have created an opportunity for dietary inclusion with minimal processing. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of Miscanthus grass as an alternative to pine shavings litter and to evaluate 2 novel, low trypsin inhibitor soybean varieties as a potential ingredient for turkeys. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 4 factorial design with main effects of litter type (Miscanthus grass or pine shavings) and dietary treatment. Diets were defined based on the soy protein source: LO (novel, unheated low oligosaccharide and trypsin inhibitor soybean), LT (novel, unheated low trypsin inhibitor soybean), SBM (commercial solvent extracted soybean meal), or CB (unheated conventional soybeans). Bedding type did not affect BW gain or feed intake at market, however, a tendency for improved FCR was observed when turkeys were raised on Miscanthus grass (P = 0.073). Turkey toms fed diets containing low trypsin inhibitor soybeans had improved BW gain and feed intake with a lower overall FCR compared to turkeys fed diets containing conventional raw whole soybeans. Therefore, there was improved digestibility of the novel soybean lines. Nutrient utilization of the novel low trypsin inhibitor soybeans, however, remained inferior to diets containing solvent extracted soybean meal, which yielded the heaviest BW and lowest FCR with similar feed intake to the low trypsin inhibitor soybean diets.

Salmonella and Campylobacter are frequent colonizers of the intestinal tracts of poultry and have often been associated with human foodborne illness. The entry, transmission, and prevalence of both pathogens have been extensively studied in chickens but little information is available for turkeys. This project monitored turkey breeder hens and toms from d of hatch to 65 wk of age with the objective of determining routes of transmission for Salmonella and Campylobacter throughout the turkey production cycle. Breeder poults were separated by sex and then into 2 groups (control and inoculated) for each sex. The inoculated group was orally gavaged with marker strains of both Salmonella and Campylobacter. The inoculated groups (toms and hens) were placed on the opposite side of a growout house from the uninoculated groups. Fecal samples, intestinal samples and organs, feed, drinkers, and potential vectors such as insects and mice, were analyzed at different times until 65 wk. Monitoring showed that Campylobacter spread rapidly and cross-contaminated turkeys throughout the growout house. For both Salmonella and Campylobacter, naturally occurring strains that were first isolated in control groups at wk 3 and 4, respectively, outcompeted marker strains several wk post inoculation and persisted in the flock. The most common naturally occurring strains were C. jejuni (tetracycline resistant), C. coli (kanamycin resistant), and S. Agona. Campylobacter and Salmonella also were isolated from flies and from a mouse, confirming the importance of proper pest control and biosecurity to reduce the spread of the bacteria.

Watering systems utilized in broiler production can impact bird performance. Many companies have increased water flow rates (WFR) in their nipple drinkers (ND) system during brooding above the manufacturers recommended level, then make adjustments in WFR during the grow period. This has increased moisture and early caking problems in litter. The objective of this study was to determine how birds perform on different WFR rates during brood and grow periods while observing litter condition. Seven WFR treatments were evaluated for broilers reared from 1 to 42 d age: 50 mL/min, 75 mL/min, 100 mL/min, 120 mL/min, 50 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 75 mL/min 8 to 42 d, 75 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 100 mL/min 8 to 42 d, and 100 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 120 mL/min 8 to 42 d. Chicks were identified and randomly allocated in a randomized complete block design. BW, cumulative feed consumption (FC), FCR (feed:BW), litter moisture (%), and litter moisture under the ND were determined weekly to 42 d. Mortality (MO) was recorded daily. Birds tended to have heavier BW on d 35 when (P = 0.08) on the higher WFR (75, 100, and 120 mL/min) in comparison to birds on the lowest WFR (50 mL/min). No differences were observed for FC, FCR, or MO. Birds on treatments with higher WFR (100 and 120 mL/min) and treatments which were increased to higher WFR (75 to 100 mL/min and 100 to 120 mL/min) utilized greater amounts of water as compared to birds receiving lower WFR (50 and 75 mL/min). The 100 and 120 mL/min WFR resulted in higher percent litter moisture (P ≤ 0.01) under the ND but decreased at the end of the growing period. In conclusion, as birds become heavier, they attempt to utilize larger amounts of water from ND with greater WFR without any beneficial effect on bird performance. As WFR increase, litter moisture under the ND will initially increase but then decrease as the birds age.

Footpad dermatitis (FPD) and walking ability are both parameters used on poultry welfare audits. One survey was conducted to determine the correlation between FPD severity, gait score (GS), BW, and litter condition on turkeys at market age. A total of 41 commercial tom flocks of 16 to 19 wk of age were evaluated. On each visit, 50 toms were selected, weighed, and evaluated for GS and FPD. Litter score (LS) was also recorded according to moisture content and caking. Data analyses consisted of pairwise correlations and 3 separate multiple linear regression models using FPD, GS, and BW as response variables. Fixed effects included LS, season, FPD, GS, and BW. Based on pairwise correlations, FPD was correlated with LS, BW, GS, and age. Gait score was correlated with LS, BW, and age. Body weight was correlated with LS. With multiple linear regression analysis it was observed that LS and BW were the parameters that were associated the most with FPD severity and GS. As litter condition worsened and BW increased, FPD and GS worsened. Moreover, a seasonal effect was observed on both FPD and GS. Colder seasons, winter and autumn, were associated with increased FPD severity and GS. A negative effect of FPD and GS was observed on BW. In conclusion, FPD and GS are correlated with BW at market age and litter condition is a major factor in FPD development and walking ability in turkeys.

SUMMARY The reutilization of litter is currently a common practice in broiler production due to several environmental and economic factors. The application of litter amendments in broiler houses is a popular practice that can reduce ammonia emissions from recycled litter by converting them to nonvolatile ammonium. Sodium bisulfate (SBS) is one of the acidifiers frequently used in broiler houses. Broilers raised to 9 wk may require higher acidifier application rates to prevent unhealthy NH3 levels throughout the flock than broilers raised to smaller sizes. A study with 6 flocks of roasters was conducted under commercial conditions to evaluate 4 levels of SBS. In a farm with 8 houses, 4 treatments were evaluated. In the control treatment 0.49 kg/m 2 of SBS was applied to the brood chamber, whereas the low, medium, and high treatments received 0.49, 0.73, and 1.46 kg/m 2 , respectively, in the whole house. Data were obtained as the average of 2 houses with approximately 21,000 broilers per house in each of the 6 flocks evaluated. Results indicated no significant differences due to treatments on final average BW, FCR, mortality, or the majority of condemnation parameters. The significant reductions in NH3 levels observed in the whole flock across all 6 flocks receiving SBS treatments did not significantly improve broiler live performance or affect condemnations at the processing plant.

SUMMARY High ammonia levels in broiler houses can reduce bird performance. Broiler producers commonly use acidifiers to reduce ammonia build-up. In addition to improving broiler performance, acidifiers can also provide other ancillary benefits such as reducing propane and electricity use and increasing cake (caked litter) N content. In this 2-yr study involving 9 flocks, 4 levels of an acidifier (sodium bisulfate) were applied to commercial roaster houses in eastern North Carolina. The control treatment had a sodium bisulfate application rate of up to 0.1 lb/ft2 to the brood chamber, whereas the high, medium, and low treatments had application rates of up to 0.3, 0.15, and 0.1 lb/ft2, respectively, to the whole house. No treatment effect was observed on propane or electricity use. However, compared with published studies involving smaller broilers, roasters required lesser amounts of propane and electricity. Linear regressions of propane and electricity use as a function of ambient temperature may help with decision making in roaster production. Brooding accounted for 88% of propane consumption. Reduced pH in the high treatment compared with the other treatments led to significantly higher ammonium concentration in the cake.

SUMMARY Broiler production has the potential to cause water and air pollution. Acidifiers such as sodium bisulfate (SBS) can reduce ammonia (NH3) emissions from broiler houses; NH3 is an important air pollutant that also affects bird health. Due to their longer grow-outs, roasters may require higher acidifier application rates to prevent unhealthy NH3 levels during the flock than ordinary broilers. Changes in NH3 emission with acidifier use may affect the partitioning of the input nitrogen (N) among the different N output pathways. Accounting for these output pathways through N mass balance provides a complete picture of N as it cycles through the roaster house. In a 2-yr study involving 9 flocks of roasters, 4 levels of SBS were applied to the litter in commercial roaster houses. Whereas the control treatment received up to 0.49 kg/ m 2 to the brood chamber, the high, medium, and low treatments received up to 1.46, 0.73, and 0.49 kg/m 2 , respectively, to the whole house. Ammonia-N emission decreased and N removed in cake and litter increased with SBS application rate. Nitrogen output components were averaged over the 4 treatments and expressed as percent of total N input or per unit mass of live weight (LW). Ammonia-N emission during grow-out, bird N exported, and cake and litter N removed accounted for 17.3% or 11.2 g/kg of LW, 38.9% or 25.1 g/kg of LW, and 22.4% or 14.4 g/kg of LW, respectively. We accounted for 79.1% of the total N inputs, with NH3-N losses during layout probably constituting the bulk of the unaccounted N. In addition to uncertainties in measurements of inputs and outputs, other factors that limited the ability to close the N mass balance were exclusion of feathers during cake and litter sampling, soil N leaching, and nitrous oxide emissions.

SUMMARY The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the relative bioavailability of Zn from Zn propionate relative to feed-grade Zn sulfate using BW gain and bone Zn as response criteria. For the first 7 d posthatching, chicks were fed a semipurified starter diet deficient in Zn (22 mg of Zn/kg). From d 8 to 21 birds were fed a control (20 mg of Zn/kg) semipurified diet containing ground corn, soy protein concentrate, and dextrose. The control diet was supplemented with 0, 6, or 12 mg of Zn/kg of diet from feed-grade Zn sulfate or organic Zn propionate. Using corn in the diet increased the level of phytate, an important Zn antagonist in nonruminant animals. As supplemental dietary Zn increased, a dose-dependent increase was observed in feed intake, weight gain, total Zn intake, tibia Zn concentration, and total tibia Zn. Zinc supplementation improved FE (feed:gain), but not in a dose-dependent manner. Relative bioavailability of Zn was determined using weight gain, tibia Zn concentration, and total tibia Zn, assuming a value of 100% for feed-grade Zn sulfate. Using relative slope assay, relative bioavailability of Zn propionate was 119, 116, and 116% compared with Zn sulfate, respectively. We concluded, based on these results, that bioavailability of Zn from organic Zn propionate is greater than feed-grade Zn sulfate in the presence of dietary phytate.

SUMMARY The relative bioavailability (RB) of Mn propionate, as compared with feed-grade Mn sulfate, was determined in chicks fed a corn- and soybean meal-based diet for 14 d. Diets were supplemented with 0, 20, 100, and 500 mg of Mn/kg of diet and assessed for growth, intake, and FE. Levels of Ca and P were also increased in this diet compared with a typical production diet to see whether, when chicks were challenged with antagonists, a difference existed between inorganic Mn sulfate and organic Mn propionate. No differences were observed for any growth parameters for either mineral level or dietary source. Relative bioavailability was determined using Mn concentration in bone, assuming a value of 100% from the feed-grade Mn sulfate. The RB of Mn propionate was 139% compared with Mn sulfate when using the relative slope assay. We concluded that organic Mn propionate has an improved RB compared with the commonly used inorganic feed-grade Mn sulfate in the presence of high dietary Ca and P.

Two pen trials and 2 field trials were conducted to determine whether a direct-fed microbial (DFM; Primalac) was effective in improving turkey productive performance. In the pen trials, typical turkey diets were formulated with and without Primalac. All feed was provided by a commercial feed mill. In trial 1, Large White male turkey poults were placed in 48 pens (18 birds/pen, 24 pens/treatment) on the day of hatch and were reared to 20 wk. In trial 2, Large White female turkey poults were placed in 48 pens (30 birds/pen, 24 pens/treatment) on the day of hatch and were reared to 18 wk. Cumulative FCR was significantly improved for birds fed DFM feed compared with birds fed control feed at 20 wk in trial 1 and at 8 wk in trial 2. Body weight was significantly greater for birds fed DFM feed compared with birds fed the control feed through 12 wk in both trials. In 2 field trials, 2 brooder houses and 4 grow-out houses were paired on each farm (4 brooder houses and 8 grow-out houses total). All birds received the same feed provided by the integrator. The DFM was provided in the water from placement to market in 1 brooder house and in the 2 matching grow-out houses. Breeder flocks were equally represented in both brooder houses within each trial. Approximately 12,000 male poults were placed in each brooder house and were transferred to 2 grow-out houses at 5 wk. Although no statistical analyses were computed for the field trials, there was a nominal improvement in performance associated with the DFM: mean livability was increased by 3.5%, mean BW was increased by 0.9 kg (2 lb), mean total weight removed from the farms was increased by 13,706 kg (30,153 lb), mean FCR was improved by 0.165, and cost of production was reduced by $0.0195/kg ($0.043/lb) of BW by the DFM. In conclusion, the DFM product (Primalac) used in these studies was effective in improving turkey live performance.

SUMMARY Two experiments and 3 field trials were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing Large White commercial turkeys. The control bedding was pine shavings (PS) in both experiments and all trials. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), is a chopped paper product made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint following a proprietary paper manufacturing process. In both experiments, hens and toms were reared according to typical industry techniques. In the first experiment, use of AC resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) heavier toms and hens. In the second, the toms brooded and reared on AC were significantly (P < 0.05) heavier than those brooded and reared on PS, whereas toms brooded on one bedding and then reared on the other were intermediate in weight. There were no differences in final cumulative FCR or carcass yield in either experiment. Three field trials were conducted with Large White commercial turkey hens in which the hens were brooded either on PS or AC, with both groups reared on PS. There was a mean increase of 0.2 kg in BW, a decrease (improvement) of 0.03 in FCR, and an increase of 3,200 kg per trial for AC-brooded birds (based on 16,000 hens placed per brooder house). A hard, dry litter crust was observed in the AC houses. With subsequent testing, further changes in the manufacturing process to create a hard, durable pellet may result in a more usable and useful bedding material.

Researchers have reported that organic mineral complexes can have increased availability compared with inorganic sources. This work was conducted to examine the inclusion of a small amount of chelated calcium proteinate (CalKey) into turkey breeder hen diets and its effect on turkey breeder hen performance. Two studies were conducted, one each in Minnesota (A) and North Carolina (B). Typical corn and soybean meal diets without animal by-product meals were used as the control diets. Hens in the first study were photostimulated at 30 wk of age in December with 15L:9D for a 24-wk lay period, and hens in a second study were photostimulated after an induced molt in January with 15.5L:8.5D for a 24-wk lay period. In study A, hatchability of fertile eggs was improved during the last 4 wk of production for hens fed calcium proteinate. During 1 period, hens fed calcium proteinate had lower daily feed intake and increased incidence of soft-shelled eggs. In study B, hatchability of fertile eggs was improved for hens fed dietary calcium proteinate for 19 and 20 wk of lay. This result was associated with improved embryo livability for wk 3 and 4 of development. It was concluded that feeding 500 ppm calcium from chelated calcium proteinate improved hatchability of turkey eggs during the later period of egg production, which was associated with decreased late embryo mortality.

The purpose of this study was to examine embryonic mortality in turkey eggs from hens of two ages and to report values that minimize the error of wrongly distinguishing between early embryonic mortality (EEM, Days 1 to 7 of incubation) and unfertilized eggs. Three hatch residue breakouts were performed at each of two commercial turkey hatcheries for a total of six hatches. Nicholas Large White turkey eggs from two hen age groups (32 to 35 and 44 to 50 wk of age) were set in the same incubator that operated under the incubation profile of each hatchery. The EEM was significantly greater (P ≤ 0.0001) in younger hens when compared to older hens. This was true for mortality prior to blood formation and mortality following blood formation. Hatchability, percentage internal pips, and live pips were not different between the two hen ages. Prepip mortality and percentage dead pips were significantly (P ≤ 0.0001) greater in older flocks. Fertility and EEM occurring after blood formation were negatively correlated in younger hens, whereas mortality occurring before blood formation did not correlate with fertility in eggs from either hen age. Eggs from young hens tended to experience embryonic mortality earlier in incubation than eggs from older hens. The results suggest that hen age influences embryonic mortality in modern commercial turkeys and could be used as an experimental model for further study of embryonic mortality.

SUMMARY Embryonic growth relationships exist for egg weight, eggshell conductance, and length of the incubation period. These relationships have been well established for comparisons of embryonic development across species; however, very little is known about these relationships within a species. The hypothesis was tested that survival of embryos in turkey eggs could be changed by manipulating incubation periods. Fertile eggs were obtained three times from the same breeder flocks (two strains). Two incubator temperature treatments were used to create two different incubation periods for the eggs. Eggs produced at 33 weeks of age hatched better at shorter incubation periods, eggs produced at 43 weeks of age hatched equally well at both incubation temperatures, and eggs produced at 54 weeks of age hatched better at longer incubation periods. Livability for 5 days in brooder houses was highly variable but indicated survival differences between strains. Additionally, longer incubation periods produced poults that lived better than did controls. The results suggest that the conductance constant principle, which describes the relationship among egg weight, length of incubation, and eggshell conductance, can be used in commercial hatcheries to improve embryo survival and poult quality.

This study was performed to determine whether poults from young turkey breeder hens (YHP, 15 wk of lay) and whether poult bacterial profiles change over the life of a breeder hen flock. Within two hatcheries, YHP had higher numbers of coliforms present in intestines than OHP (p ≤ 0.05). Isolated incidences of significantly different bacteria counts by hen age existed in poults from a third hatchery for all bacteria groups examined. However, within each hatchery, there were more differences due to farm than due to breeder hen age. Seasonal variation had as much influence as hen age when evaluating poult bacterial profiles. It was concluded that factors such as individual farm management, poult environment, biosecurity and traffic control, breeder flock bacterial profiles, and weekly conditions in the hatchery probably have a greater effect on poult bacterial profile than age of breeder hen.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of turkey breeder hen age on the efficacy of different antibiotics commonly used in the turkey industry against poult Escherichia coli isolates. Intestinal isolates demonstrated more incidences of resistance to chlortetracycline (CTC), gentamicin (GEN), enrofloxacin (ENO), neomycin (NEO), and sulfadimethoxine-ormetoprim (SDM-ORM) when cultured from poults from young hens (YHP, 15 weeks of lay) (p ≤ 0.05). Liver isolates demonstrated varied hen age differences to GEN (p ≤ 0.05). However, liver isolates cultured from YHP showed higher levels of resistance to NEO and SDM-ORM and lower levels of resistance to ENO (p ≤ 0.05). All isolates cultured were resistant to clindamycin (CLD) and bacitracin (BAC), and no less than 96.6% of the isolates cultured were resistant to penicillin (PEN). Isolates from Hatchery 1 and 2 exhibited strong susceptibility to ENO, but, in Hatchery 3, results to ENO varied. The results were more variable when breeder flocks were followed from young to old, which may be due to pronounced seasonal effects. In conclusion, E. coli isolates from YHP have a higher incidence of resistance to antibiotics than E. coli isolates from OHP. These data suggest that age of breeder flock and hatchery-related environmental differences might influence the effectiveness of antibiotics against avian E. coli isolates from turkey poults.

An experiment was conducted to determine the efficacy of Fermacto 500 (FER) as a nutritional aid in alleviating protein insufficiency caused by a decrease in ingredient protein quality in diets for laying hens. Egg production, egg weight, egg output, shell weight, and shell surface density were not affected by dietary treatments. Young hens fed FER produced a higher percentage of extra large eggs. Inclusion of FER improved feed conversion for you and old hens. Statistically significant differences were not detected in protein digestibility, though values were consistently higher in FER-fortified diets. Gastrointestinal transit time was significantly prolonged and determined metabolizable energy values of diets were higher when FER was included in the diet. Our results demonstrate that, under conditions of this study, inclusion of FER at 0.2% improved feed utilization, and this was associated with feed staying longer in the digestive tract.

Two trials, one using chicks and the other poults, were conducted to determine the efficacy of an enzyme designed to enhance the utilization of wheat non-starch polysaccharides in two sources of wheat. There were five treatment rations: corn-soybean meal (CSBM) and four other diets containing 40% wheat from two locations (North Carolina, NC, and western Canada, CN) supplemented with and without enzyme. Intestinal viscosity was decreased for both chicks and poults with enzyme supplementation of both wheat sources. Body weight gain was improved for both chicks and poults fed NC wheat. Birds fed NC wheat did not grow as well as birds fed CN wheat or corn-based diets. It was concluded that 1) supplementation of wheat sources for both chicks and poults lowered intestinal viscosity; 2) enzyme supplementation of NC wheat diets improved performance of chicks and poults; and 3) source of wheat affected chick and poult performance.

The efficacy of turkey semen filtration was tested in six trials utilizing 63, 90, or 180 μm (M2, M3, CF) filters. Nonfiltered semen was compared to filtered semen using the modified ethidium bromide test for fresh and 24-hr stored semen in control buffer (100%) and stress buffer (20%) for all six trials. In the first four trials, filtered semen sometimes had higher sperm viability (P

The objective of this survey was to determine hatchery practices and production variables for commercial turkey hatcheries in the United States to help identify areas that need further research and Extension education. This survey was conducted using the USDA NPIP mailing list as an address source. Survey respondents set a total of 166.5 million eggs in 1994. Total hatch equaled 127.4 million poults for a 76.5% hatchability of total eggs set (86.7% hatch of fertile). Poults were removed from incubators at 27.6 days of incubation. Mean placement occurred 22.7 hr following hatch but varied from 4 to 48 hr. Reported mean setter dry bulb (DB), relative humidity (RH), and wet bulb (WB) setting were 99.2° F, 51.3%, and 84.5°F respectively, but considerable variability occurred. Hatcher means for DB, RH, and WB were 98.2°F, 70.3%, and 88.2°F respectively, also with considerable variability. Other factors reported include egg sanitation, egg handling practices, first week poult mortality, and length of breeder hen lay period.

A field survey was conducted to study the association between mouth lesion incidence (LI) and egg shell quality in commercial laying hens. Hens in 5 groups of cages were examined for number of mouth lesions and body weight. Eggs collected by group were evaluated for egg weight (EW), shell weight (SW), % shell, and shell surface density (SD). Eight farms were used that involved 2 strains, 2 age groups, and 2 management levels. The relationships between egg shell quality factor means and number of lesions per hen by strain, age, and management level were determined using correlation and regression. Lesion incidence was negatively correlated with EW and SW. There was a linear decrease in both EW and SW as LI increased and this decrease was greater in young birds than in old. There were no overall effects of LI on % shell or SD. However, SD decreased more in poor management birds than good as lesion incidence increased.