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SUMMARY: Producers and consumers associated with small scale backyard egg production tend to reuse egg cartons. Egg cartons are also reused for arts and craft projects, gardening, and organization units for small items. The reuse of egg cartons is primarily driven by economic or ecological reasons. The ability of zoonotic bacteria, such as Salmonella Enteritidis (SE), to survive on the eggshell surface and a variety of food packaging materials makes the reuse of egg carton risky. This study was aimed at determining the scope of cross-contamination of SE between eggshell and different egg carton types using 2 experiments. Unwashed eggs from end-of-lay white Leghorn hens were used in the experiments. Two different SE strains were used with 3 independent tubes of inocula from each strain as replicates. In Experiment 1, 216 eggs from each SE strain (72/replicate) were inoculated with 10 μL of SE inoculum (~ 9.95 log cfu/mL), allowed to dry in room temperature, and placed in nonadjacent wells of noninoculated plastic, polystyrene foam, and pulp egg cartons. Egg cartons of each type were then stored either at refrigeration (4°C) or room temperature (25°C). After 24 h eggs were discarded and the carton-wells were swabbed for SE recovery. In Experiment 2, wells of egg cartons were inoculated with SE and uninoculated eggs were placed in them and stored similar to Experiment 1. A total of 216 wells within the egg cartons were inoculated for each SE strain (72/replicate). Eggshell samples were collected for SE recovery. Only 3 samples were detected positive for SE in Experiment 1 and no effect of carton type, SE strain, or incubation temperature was observed. In Experiment 2, 8 eggshell samples were SE positive – 6 from polystyrene foam and 2 from plastic carton. Statistical difference was observed for pulp versus polystyrene foam only (P < 0.05). These results indicate that transfer of SE between egg carton and eggshell surface is possible and that the risk of cross-contamination is associated with type of carton material.

The quantity of poultry manure generated each year is large, and technologies that take advantage of the material should be explored. At the same time, increased emphasis on the reduction of mercury emissions from coal-fired electric power plants has resulted in environmental regulations that may, in the future, require application of activated carbons as mercury sorbents. The sorbents could be injected into the flue gas stream, where they could adsorb the mercury. The sorbents (now containing mercury) would be removed via filtration or other means from the flue gas. Our preliminary work has demonstrated that activated carbon made from poultry manure can adsorb mercury from air with good efficiency. In laboratory experiments, an activated carbon made from turkey cake manure removed the majority of elemental mercury from a hot air stream. Other activated carbons made from chicken and turkey litter manure were also efficient. In general, unwashed activated carbons made from poultry manure were more efficient in removing mercury than their acid-washed counterparts. The results suggest that the adsorption of mercury was mainly due to chemisorption on the surface of the carbon. Other potential uses for the activated carbons are the removal of mercury from air and natural gas.

SUMMARY In order to develop an effective bacterial aerosol sampling system for commercial poultry housing, total bacterial populations were monitored using different air-sampling systems in a poultry layer house. To find the optimum sampling time for the detection of airborne bacteria, an axial fan Puralator filter (a home air conditioning filter attached to a household box fan), a circulating fan filter (glass fiber filter attached to a circulating fan with an adjustable flow rate), and all-glass impinger samples were compared over 2 d. Accumulated samples were collected continuously over 36 h, and nonaccumulated samples were collected concurrently during 4 distinct periods within this 36-h collection period. The air-sampling results also were compared with conventional drag-swab samples from the same poultry house environment. Total bacterial colonyforming units recovered from impingers and circulating fan filters were typically less variable. The axial fan samples by comparison had higher variability. Overall aerosol bacterial counts were higher when collected by the impactors before adjusting for airflow rate. Higher yields of total bacterial colony-forming units were recovered from impingers after being recalculated for airflow rate. The further development of aerosol sampling systems may allow for continuous monitoring of microbial populations in a poultry layer house.

Salmonella Enteritidis is a leading food-borne pathogen in the United States, with many outbreaks in humans traced back to shell eggs. As a result, the implementation of effective strategies for reducing Salmonella Enteritidis in commercial layer flocks has become a critical public health and economic objective. In this paper, we share the findings of 2 multistate USDA-National Integrated Food Safety Initiative grant teams and their work aimed at Salmonella Enteritidis reduction in shell eggs. One project, led by K. Venkitanarayanan, is using plant-derived antimicrobial molecules as dietary supplements to reduce Salmonella Enteritidis colonization of the digestive and reproductive tract of chickens. The same molecules are being evaluated for their effect on Salmonella Enteritidis in egg wash solutions. The project led by S. Kariyawasam used on-farm investigation and novel bacterial typing methods to study Salmonella Enteritidis transmission in diverse layer environments to update and optimize Egg Quality Assurance Programs that will significantly reduce Salmonella Enteritidis contamination of shell eggs. The current US Food and Drug Administration Egg Safety Rule and Egg Quality Assurance Programs are based on critical control points and best management practices developed from studies of large flocks (>50,000 hens) conducted in the 1990s, indicating that opportunities exist to improve preharvest programs to reduce Salmonella Enteritidis contamination. This paper will share the findings of these 2 projects.

SUMMARY Functional foods are foods enriched with single ingredients, which influence 1 or more functions of the consumer in a favorable way, exceeding the effects of normal adequate nutrition. Consumers can expect health benefits from these products. The production of functional poultry meat is a promising future perspective, although the market share of such products will be small. The objective of the present paper was to summarize some examples of functional poultry meat. Substances of interest for this purpose are fatty acids and antioxidants. Enrichment of poultry meat with these health-promoting substances is not really a new approach, but there exists a potential for meeting the recommended daily intake for humans despite a probable negative effect on product quality. In the past, many papers were published showing that poultry meat can be enriched with conjugated linoleic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, and Se in such a way that 100 g of enriched tissue meets 3 to 11, 70 to 130, and 60% of the recommended daily intake for humans, respectively. However, the occurrence of tough meat (conjugated linoleic acid) and an increased liability to oxidation (omega-3 fatty acids) may impair the use of functional poultry meat. More research is needed, both on these negative effects on human requirements for these substances and possible interactions between enriched components.

Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter on poultry products have been linked with cases of human intestinal disease. Inadequate poultry processing procedures may play a role in producing products that contain high concentrations of Salmonella and Campylobacter. The purpose of this paper was to determine whether different processing procedures provided significant variation in the bacterial contamination of raw, ready-to-cook carcasses. In this experiment, broiler chickens were processed with and without skin as well as with and without evisceration procedures. Standard processed chicken carcasses, with intact skin and viscera removed, had lower bacterial counts than did carcasses without skin or carcasses containing intact viscera (“New York dressed”). Current processing procedures widely used within the poultry industry yield superior product with regard to microbiological quality when compared to the alternative procedures described in this paper.

SUMMARY Viral infections impose a great threat to backyard chicken production among poor rural households in developing countries. These infections limit the contribution of chicken production in improving the livelihoods of poor communities, particularly in Africa. Chicken viral infections lack treatment options; control and prevention depend primarily on adoption of vaccines and good farm management practice such as the institution of biosecurity measures. In backyard production systems, these control options are less practical and less feasible to implement. Research has demonstrated the role of genetic diversity of farmed animals and birds in explaining variation in resistance to infectious diseases and suggests that heterogeneous populations are less susceptible to disease than homogeneous populations. Local African chicken ecotypes have high genetic diversity and have demonstrated the ability to survive persistent exposure to pathogens and harsh environmental conditions. This suggests that local African chickens have the genetic potential to enhance breeding strategies for resistance to viral infections. Despite the ongoing threat of infectious disease and dynamic of diseases epidemiology attributed by climate change, little has been done to harness the genetic potential of local African chicken ecotypes to breed for resistant traits. To lay the foundation for future research, this review paper presents a summary of challenges facing current chicken viral infections control and prevention options in local African chickens, and gives an overview of documented information on the genetic diversity and population structure of local African chicken ecotypes.

SUMMARY In order to identify the gender of chicken eggs at the early stage of incubation, a machine vision image acquisition system was constructed. Under the light source of LED, the images of 2 batches (186 and 180) of chicken eggs were respectively obtained on d 3, d 4, d 5, d 6, d 8, and d 10 of incubation. Considering the clarity and the integrity of blood vessels in the field of machine vision, the image of d 4 was determined as the basis for gender identification of chick embryos. After image processing, the 11 dimensions of feature parameters depicting the chick's embryonic development were extracted. In this paper, the genetic algorithm (GA) was used to optimize the initial weights and thresholds of backpropagation neural networks (BPNN) with different hidden layers. Then the GA-BPNN with single hidden layer, as well as, double hidden layers was established respectively. According to the research, the comprehensive accuracy of GA-BPNN model with double hidden layers reached 89.74% for the prediction set, which was higher than that of the model with single hidden layer, indicating that optimizing the initial weights and thresholds of BPNN by GA and adding the hidden layer had a certain effect on improving the recognition accuracy. Meanwhile, the results showed that the machine vision technology provided a feasible method for gender identification of chicken eggs at the early stage of incubation.

SUMMARY The supply of dietary energy is of critical importance to all animals and is of large economic impact for the poultry industry. Over time, livestock nutritionists have refined the measurement of dietary energy, and the expression of energy requirements from digestible energy (DE), to metabolizable energy (ME), and ultimately to net energy (NE), subdivided into NE for maintenance and NE for production. Commercial dairy, beef, and swine nutritionists have largely moved to expressing energy in terms of NE, but the poultry industry has not been as quick to make the transition from ME. The symposium papers explore the benefits and limitations in the use of NE for broilers, strengths and limitations of various sources of feedstuff energy values, the partitioning of dietary energy into retained energy and heat production, and the utilization of synthetic amino acids for energy by the bird.

SUMMARY The poultry industry is considered one of the most efficient industries in producing animal protein. Poultry production consists of several main segments: broilers, commercial eggs, turkeys, ducks, and other poultry, including geese, guinea-fowl, pheasants, quail, and ratites. Currently, ostrich meat is marketed as a healthy red meat because it is characterized by high polyunsaturated fatty acid contents, low saturated fatty acid content, and low cholesterol level compared with red meats, such as beef, while tasting similar to lean beef. Ostrich meat contains lower sodium and higher iron contents than other kinds of meat, making it preferable to hypertensive people and those with anemia. Taken together, ostrich meat is considered as an ideal red meat for individuals seeking healthier lifestyle. Moreover, many different ostrich products, such as leather and feathers, are used by people. The current review paper considers the quality characteristics of ostrich meat, including physical traits, and compares it to other types of meats, such as bovine and other poultry meats.

In this paper, we estimate the costs and benefits of implementing the proposed National Organic Program for laying hens compared with alternatives. For the regulatory proposals under option 2, the regulatory cost will be zero because most producers are already in compliance with the proposed regulation. The anticipated benefits of this regulation will be zero as well, because the current market prices already reflect consumers’ willingness to pay for the existing animal welfare conditions. For the regulatory proposals under option 3, before market adjustments, the average regulatory burden for the entire organic egg industry will amount to $0.09 per dozen eggs, with extreme variations between $0 for small operations and $2.30 per dozen for large operations. If we rely on the average price of organic eggs, $2.69 per dozen, and assume a maximum estimated benefit associated with improved animal welfare conditions, that consumers would be willing to pay of about 30% above the current market price, the estimated benefit of regulation amounts to $0.81 per dozen eggs. Based on the findings, we conclude that option 2 is welfare neutral and could be easily adopted because it already has been adopted by representative producers. For option 3, the benefit-cost ratio is larger than 1, which indicates that the proposal passes the benefit-cost ratio test. The obtained result, however, has to be interpreted with serious reservation because of the differential effect that the proposed regulation would have on different industry participants. Under option 3, the effect of the proposed changes on small organic egg producers is negligible because most small producers are operating under conditions similar to the proposed living standards. However, costs will increase substantially for large organic egg producers and likely cause a substantial number of producers to exit organic production and switch to conventional production, which would cause a substantial decline in the prices of conventional eggs and organic feed in the short run.

SUMMARY The use of exogenous feed enzymes in poultry diets is becoming a norm to overcome the adverse effects of antinutritional factors and improve digestion of dietary components and bird performance. In this paper, an overview of the science behind the use of feed enzymes and the current status of enzyme technology is provided. Responses to enzyme supplementation are often variable and the reasons contributing to the observed variability are discussed. Though there are opportunities to enhance nutrient utilization with enzyme supplementation, there will be physiological limits to achievable responses. These limits are imposed by the pH and digesta retention time within the digestive tract. Nutritional strategies to, at least partly, overcome these limits need to be explored; potential approaches include feeding to restore functionality of crop and gizzard as well as the use of unconventionally high doses of enzymes. Anticipated future development of better forms of feed enzymes will also lower the physiological barriers.

SUMMARY Poultry may obtain fiber from the feed or from the ingestion of, e.g., fibrous litter materials. In earlier studies, it was shown that insoluble fiber may stimulate digestion and exert a calming effect on laying hens. Fiber may also influence the metabolism of minerals and fat, which might affect egg quality. In this paper, we describe the effects of 2 means of fiber supply on production performance, feather cover, and egg quality in Lohmann Brown (LB) and Lohmann Selected Leghorn (LSL) hens housed in furnished cages between 20 and 60 wk of age. Insoluble fiber was supplied by either including 3% ground straw pellets in the feed or by substituting the saw dust in the litter bath with crumbled straw pellets. Overall, hens were frequently pecking the litter, but litter bath occupation, litter pecking, and litter intake was higher in LB than in LSL. In LB, more crumbled straw pellets were consumed from the litter bath compared with saw dust. Compared with the control, adding straw pellets to the feed reduced egg shell thickness in LB but not in LSL. Otherwise, treatments had no significant effects on production performance, egg quality, or feather cover. Therefore, litter may constitute a significant source of insoluble fiber to laying hens, but notable hybrid differences in the interaction with litter were observed.

SUMMARY This paper is a synopsis of the research portion of the National Extension Workshop conducted at the 98th annual meeting of PSA. This workshop provided an overview of the direct impact land grant universities have on the poultry industry. Several members from across the poultry industry and allied industries provided their views on topics pertaining to improving university research to better benefit the industry as a whole. Among the topics discussed were the benefits of industry advisory committees, the source(s) of monetary support for university research, the industry’s need for both applied and basic research, and the usefulness of the Midwest Poultry Consortium.

Although the transition from cage housing to alternative systems commenced more than 20 yr ago, there is still an ongoing need for information supporting system understanding, system development, and genetic selection. Cannibalism remains one of the largest problems in these housing systems. Furthermore, recent developments in feed prices have increased the price of animal feed, raising production costs of eggs. Replacing feedstuffs with cheaper self-grown crops might be a possible solution to lower feed costs. In Belgium, and more specifically, in the Kempen region, corn is a widely grown crop that is usually used for feeding dairy cows, yet a ground mix of dry corn grains and a small part of the cob, known as corn cob mix (CCM), can also be used as poultry feed. In this paper the effect of the fibrous feed CCM on the prevalence of cannibalism on hens with trimmed and untrimmed beaks is investigated. The results show a positive effect of CCM on mortality; nevertheless, the mortality in the groups of untrimmed hens was very high, indicating the importance of beak trimming. Furthermore, a positive effect of CCM on egg weight was observed.

Viral and bacterial diseases remain a threat to the poultry industry and countermeasures to prevent and control them are needed due to production losses. With the continued threat of exotic and emerging diseases and concern over the use of antibiotics in animal production, there is a serious and urgent need to find safe and practical alternatives to prevent or control pathogens. Identification of new tools for the design of new immunological interventions or therapeutic antimicrobials to reduce microbial pathogens in poultry is now required more than ever. Immunological interventions to reduce microbial pathogens in poultry would be of great value to the poultry industry and to the consumer. We have been advocating boosting immunity and encouraging the host to utilize its innate immune system to control and clear infections. Our research has addressed the use of innate immune mechanisms and components to develop new immune modulators (prophylactic and therapeutic) and the characterization and production of antimicrobial peptides as potential immune modulators in poultry. Dietary bioactive food components that interact with the immune response have considerable potential to reduce susceptibility to infectious diseases. With this premise, this paper asks and answers a series of pertinent questions on the utilization of avian immunity for increasing resistance to a variety of potential pathogens problematic in today's commercial poultry industry. Using experimental data to provide answers to these questions, we hope to stimulate a dialog between avian immunologists and nutritionists that results in coordinating and integrating their expertise into specific practical solutions that will benefit the industry and improve the well-being of commercial poultry.

SUMMARY With respect to the National Animal Identification System (NAIS), poultry science professors are key players in resolving the concerns of fanciers in every state, because they have been and will be involved in developing the plans to implement the NAIS in their state. Highly restrictive, financially prohibitive regulations that ignore the needs of standard-bred exhibition poultry will cripple and then destroy an important part of our nation’s poultry industry. This applies not only to NAIS but also to other regulations that affect the testing and movement of poultry. For example, poultry from other states entered in any fair or club poultry show in Texas must have been tested for avian influenza within 30 d of the entry date. This has eliminated entries from outside Texas, because there are very few veterinarians in Texas and other states that are qualified to test and retest the birds and provide the necessary health papers. We cannot host an American Poultry Association (APA) district meet in our 5-state district number 7 much less be considered for an APA national show. We recommend that any flock participating in the National Poultry Improvement Plan program should be considered adequately monitored and should be allowed into any state that is not under quarantine. Even if the recommendation stated above is adopted, it will not help producers in a state such as Texas, which does not allow fanciers to become part of the National Poultry Improvement Plan. Texas fanciers go to Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico for exhibitions, but exhibitors from those states have been effectively eliminated from Texas shows. Anything that poultry science specialists can do to help prevent or change regulations detrimental to exhibition poultry is greatly needed and appreciated. The leadership of the APA and the American Bantam Association agrees with the NAIS and are actively involved in defining a plan that accomplishes program goals but does not cripple or end their contribution to thepoultry industry. Furthermore,we urge ourmembers to complywith the lawsand regulations affecting poultry. There is no reason that commercial poultry and standard-bred exhibition poultry cannot exist side by side if both groups, in conjunction with the proper authorities, work together for their mutual benefit. These organizations are committed to that goal!

The most commonly used poultry marinades include salt and sodium tripolyphosphate, which have been shown to increase meat yield and water-holding capacity, as well as improve color and texture. Recently, several poultry further-processing facilities have begun using more acidic (pH ˜4) type marinades such as sodium lactate, sodium citrate, and sodium diacetate (alone or in combination) to combat the growth of Listeria monocytogenes in further-processed meat loaves. Because the acidic marinades currently used in turkey further-processing have a low pH (˜4) compared with the previously used salt and sodium tripolyphosphate (˜pH 9), these marinades may cause meat quality problems. This review paper will discuss aspects of poultry food safety and meat quality and how acidic marinades can be used to improve safety, specifically by controlling L. monocytogenes growth, and how they affect quality of the meat products. Current industry practices will be discussed and reviewed.

The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology has made considerable progress in the past year in all of its focus areas that affect visibility and financial well-being as we strive to achieve our mission. “Building Our Brand” is at the core of every activity, including our product (publications), our member involvement (stakeholder contacts and reports), and our distribution and sales (expanding our reach and affecting the key audiences listed in our mission statement). “Ahead of the Need” information is what the Poultry Science Association can provide us. We are increasing the number of commentary papers that we will produce annually, and we have improved our reach to state and federal congressional contacts and media personnel. We appreciate the support and suggestions of the Poultry Science Association and look forward to continued success in communicating science to society.

SUMMARY The poultry industry is an essential part of the region’s economy in western Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma. With poultry production has come large amounts of poultry litter to the region. Some suggest excess nutrients from poultry litter have negatively affected water, lowering its usefulness for recreational purposes. This conflict has put the poultry industry at the heart of environmental litigation in the region. The purpose of this paper was to examine, first, the economic contributions of the poultry industry in the region and, second, the potential economic costs associated with meeting water quality standards by reducing the amount of poultry litter produced. Results show that the poultry industry as a whole supports over 34,000 jobs in the northern economic region of the study area and nearly 15,500 jobs in the central region. Results also indicate that the economic activity in the northern region could decrease by around 2% and by over 3% in the central region due to regulations on the use of poultry litter. These results are useful for those interested in the economic contribution of the poultry industry to the region, including poultry integrators and producers as well as to policymakers looking to balance environmental quality and economic development.

SUMMARY Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is a persistent, highly transmissible chicken and turkey pathogen. Infections of the organism can yield significant losses in performance and associated economics to all sectors of the poultry industry. In this paper, potential and realized effects of MG on the poultry industry are discussed along with currently available and developing control methods. Available methods of MG control largely include stringent biosecurity and biosurveillance practices within the turkey and broiler sectors of the poultry industry and live attenuated MG vaccine strains that are approved for use only within the commercial egg layer industry. Although largely effective, MG breaks within these industries still occur, demonstrating that further means of control are required. Alternative means for consideration include bacterins and subunit vaccines, although their applicability may be limited by associated vaccination protocols. Further means under consideration include novel live attenuated MG strains and recombinant bacterial and viral species. Optimally, control methods would be applicable to all poultry and be safe, cost effective, and efficacious. Current research regarding novel MG vaccines is addressed herein.

This paper discusses policy changes from 1957 to present that the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has made regarding handling of poultry carcasses that were accidentally contaminated by feces or ingesta during slaughter and processing. Since 1957, FSIS has reevaluated its position in light of new scientific evidence on methods for handling contaminated poultry. The FSIS will continue to make scientifically supported changes that are consistent with Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles. Prior to 1978, contamination was removed solely by knife trimming. In 1978, FSIS changed the regulations to allow reprocessing at special stations away from the main processing line. Several scientific studies demonstrated that the microbial quality of reprocessed product was comparable to carcasses remaining on the main processing line. Since 1996, FSIS has been actively reforming regulations to make them consistent with the Agency's HACCP system regulatory approach to meat, poultry, and egg processing. Control of poultry contamination by digestive tract contents is one of several regulatory standards that have used a visible product standard. The visual absence of feces or ingesta serves as an indirect measure of microbial safety for at least the risk from pathogens likely to be present in visible digestive tract contents. The FSIS strives to base regulatory reform on the best science available. Changes in processing methods, such as reprocessing poultry on the main processing line to remove feces and ingesta, have been allowed because they were shown to improve the microbiological safety of poultry products. Such changes are tested prior to implementation to ensure that they are consistent with the goal of protecting public health.

SUMMARY Public concerns related to air quality effects of intensive dairy and poultry operations have grown considerably in recent years. Pollutants of concern include particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOC), ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and odors. Although public pressure translates into legislative and regulatory action, there are insufficient data on character, amount, dispersion, and mitigation of air pollutants to establish appropriate and effective regulations. By using California case studies, the present paper shows livestock and poultry producers as well as regulatory agencies how the lack of science in air emission estimates and mitigation can lead to dramatic effects on animal agriculture without improving air quality.

Poultry processing plants are increasingly reliant on immigrant laborers as a supply of willing, unskilled workers. Likewise, poultry farmers also recruit and employ immigrants for menial tasks and upkeep on farms. The primary reasons for immigrant labor in the poultry industry include readily available employment, willing employers who actively seek immigrants, and the competitive advantages of an immigrant workforce. Although these immigrants have had an impact on poultry producing regions, little discussion has developed over the social and political implications of these immigrants. Nonetheless, several authors have recently forwarded arguments about these impacts: some argue that the new immigrants will fail to assimilate and enculturate, thus causing a fraying of local and national social structures, whereas others argue that American culture will become accomodationist as immigrants assimilate, thus forging a new American demographic that is still nonetheless American. This paper argues that assimilation and enculturation will be episodic and by no means certain but dependent on social-demographic factors for success. Likewise, practical impacts of immigration in plants and on farms are discussed.

Increased attention by regulatory agencies on agriculturally generated atmospheric pollutants necessitates consideration of emission reduction strategies in broiler facility management. Various remedial activities exist that can greatly reduce off-site transport of odorous compounds, ammonia and dust; however, descriptive collections of the different technologies remains limited in the literature. Therefore, this review aims to collect research findings into a comprehensive examination of both established and innovative remedial activities. Furthermore, this paper identifies management practices that warrant further research or require investigation of technology transfer potential from other livestock production types to broiler operations. Installation and operating costs are listed when available to provide insight into the economic viability of a remedial activity based on air quality needs. Used in conjunction with an appropriate pollutant management plan, the reviewed remedial practices may prove to abate odor, ammonia, and dust problems originating from broiler operations.

SUMMARY To stay competitive in an ever-changing, consolidating industry, poultry companies must learn how to effectively and efficiently innovate and then implement new technologies. Moreover, an efficient process must be in place to successfully choose winners from losers. An objective of this process, therefore, must be to make quick, accurate decisions that minimize organizational efforts and expenses associated with evaluating and implementing new technology opportunities. With these concepts in mind, embracing an effective portfolio management strategy is paramount to extracting commercial value from new technology developments. Likewise, managing risk must be an integral aspect of any new product or portfolio management program whose key objective minimizes losses within the organization while allowing for the greatest probability of overall success. This paper will discuss the importance of portfolio risk assessment and management; provide a description of an effective process to manage risk while enhancing success, especially as it relates to new opportunities or technology alternatives under consideration; and discuss tools to manage the process, including the effective management of the research and development (R&D) function such that it is effectively aligned with product development objectives. Finally, some discussion will focus on how the modern poultry industry might apply some of these principles and concepts toward implementing an effective new product and technology program.

The method used to determine the microbiological quality of fresh poultry is extremely important. Some sampling methods are suitable for estimating general populations of bacteria without destroying product integrity, while other methods are appropriate for detecting the presence of pathogens that may be on the carcass in low numbers. This paper describes in detail the commonly used methods for sampling fresh poultry and identifies the strengths and weaknesses of each method.

This paper describes several microbiological sampling methods that may be used for determining the cleanliness of poultry processing plant equipment, including surface swabbing, agar contact, hygiene contact slides, dry medium film, impedance, and ATP bioluminescence. Advantages and disadvantages associated with each method are mentioned. This article will be helpful to anyone faced with the task of microbiologically monitoring poultry processing equipment after sanitation.

Nutritionists rely on the assumption that feed is digested in a manner which is independent of both the ingredient matrix of the diet and the genetics and physiological status of the bird. This fact is evident when observing feed formulation in the poultry industry and in particular the manner in which energy and amino acid specifications are met through ingredient mixing. Such assumptions about digestion may not be entirely valid, however. Additivity of metabolizable energy, for example, is a fundamental tenet of poultry nutrition which is beginning to look less and less secure. The reasons stem from a lack of recognition of the differences in intestinal maintenance energy costs placed on the bird through use of specific ingredients and, more importantly, the role of intestinal microflora in energy and protein utilization. This paper attempts to highlight some recent (and some not so recent) findings which suggest that our reliance on the current formulation systems may overstate their robustness to dietary changes.

The development of artificial insemination (AI) technology over the past decade has resulted in some significant advances in poultry breeding. However, because there are few poultry scientists performing fundamental research to advance AI technology, alternative approaches must be examined in an effort to expand AI technology. This paper suggests that the technology available for cell and tissue culture propagation should be evaluated and the applicability of this technology to poultry AI technology assessed. Instrumentation and clinical testing procedures used for the evaluation of somatic cells in culture could provide objective data before and after semen storage on large numbers of males in a short period of time. Furthermore, cell culture media and supplements already commercially available may be useful in the storage of semen for 24 hr or longer.

Current public health concerns and federal regulations have resulted in the imposition of new decision criteria on egg producers. Using the theory of optimal replacement and computer generated egg production budgets, this paper develops rules of thumb to assist egg producers in the task of deciding whether or not to depopulate when Salmonella enteritidis (SE) is present. This study shows that a firm that is prohibited from selling into the table egg market because of the presence of SE could face a reduction in net income of 47 percent. However, alternatives are explored in a production budget context to indicate ways that a typical firm can reduce the adverse economic impact of the presence of SE. Finally, this analysis indicates that the newly revised regulations, which permit firms to consider each egg house of a complex separately, provide flexibility to producers to minimize the adverse impact of these regulations.