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SUMMARY The inner perivitelline layer (IPL) sperm hole assay provides an objective assessment of the number of sperm penetrating the hen’s ovum at the germinal disc. That number will provide insight into numerous parameters concerning fertility, including, but not limited to, the probability of the ovum being fertilized (true fertility), the duration of fertility, an assessment of mating activity, the effect of inseminating in vitro-stored semen, and the influence of spiking a breeder flock. In the current paper, we discuss the use of a filter paper ring to isolate and process the IPL overlying the germinal disc (PL disc) in 5 species of domestic birds. The morphology of the PL disc is also described to assist those using the sperm hole assay during sperm hole counting. The filter ring approach was successfully used with chicken, turkey, duck, goose, and Japanese quail eggs; the PL discs remained intact and stretched across the filter ring and sperm holes, when present, were clearly discernible. Morphologically, the PL disc appeared to be a silhouette of the germinal disc, including the germinal vesicle observed in follicular oocytes. The fibers forming the IPL had a honeycomb-like arrangement that could be mistaken for actual sperm holes in faintly stained slides. Given its diversity of applications and relative simplicity using the filter ring, it is recommended that the sperm hole assay be part of a quality control program at the hatchery. Already used in the scientific community, this filter ring method has the additional advantage that the blastoderm may be collected before the staining process.

SUMMARY Campylobacter is a human food-borne pathogen frequently associated with poultry and poultry products and can be found in high numbers within the gut contents of colonized broilers. The number of Campylobacter on broiler carcasses increases markedly during automated defeathering as rubber picker fingers press on the abdomen and can force gut contents out of the cloaca. One method to prevent this increase is to plug the cloaca and prevent escape of gut contents. For a plug to be effective, it must resist expulsion during picking. In the current work, we test shredded sponge or paper as a means to plug broiler carcass cloacae during automated feather removal. Broiler carcass cloacae were plugged before scalding and carcasses were sampled to determine the bacterial numbers present on breast skin after scalding (before feather picking) and again after feather picking. Neither 50 cc of shredded paper nor 25 cc of shredded sponge was effective as a cloacal plug. However, a plug made of 50 cc shredded sponge material was effective to occlude broiler carcass vents during automated defeathering. Significantly fewer Campylobacter cells were detected on the breast skin of post pick carcasses plugged with 50 mL of shredded sponge than on post pick unplugged control carcasses.

Coccidiosis continues to affect caged layers worldwide despite keeping them on wire all their productive lives. Coccidiosis in caged layers, diagnosed either in clinical or subclinical forms, has one feature in common, unpredictability. Until recently, despite the use of vaccine, coccidiosis remained problematic, particularly at the beginning of lay, likely related to the low protective immunity for a lack of vehicle for recycling. An approach for using paper plates, both for vaccination as well as recycling is described. Caged layers that were vaccinated once with gel-puck coccidiosis vaccine laid at over 90% continuously for over 24 wk with little or no problem of coccidiosis.

Summary This study aimed to investigate the effects of modified-dietary fiber from cassava pulp (M-DFCP), mostly classified as insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), as a feed supplement on productive performance, nutrient digestibility, weight of digestive organs, abdominal fat storage, and cholesterol in meat and blood of broiler chickens. A total of 336 one-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were allocated to 4 groups in 7 replicate pens with 12 chicks each, based on a completely randomized design. Four dietary treatments composed of control and 3 M-DFCP inclusion levels: 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5%. The results showed that M-DFCP showed no negative effects on growth performance in broiler chickens. The inclusion of M-DFCP in diets at 1.0 to 1.5% had positive effects on increased gizzard weight, reduced gizzard pH, and reduced abdominal fat. The M-DFCP at 1.0% can also increase nutrient digestibility (dry matter, organic matter, and ether extract). In addition, the supplementation of M-DFCP at 1.0 to 1.5% in diets represented lower cholesterol in serum, breast and thigh meats, and liver of broiler chickens. In conclusion, these results indicate that M-DFCP can be used as an IDF source in broiler diets. The inclusion of 1.0% M-DFCP in broiler diet has positive effects on enhancing gizzard function, improving nutrient digestibility, and reducing abdominal fat and cholesterol in chicken meat, blood, and liver.

There are instances where shell eggs may be moved from refrigeration into ambient temperature with high humidity, such as before wash and during transportation. Under these conditions, it is of concern that bacteria on wet eggs can grow and migrate through the shell pores into the egg. Objectives of this experiment were: 1) to compare 3 methods of quantifying condensate on eggs and 2) to quantify condensate on refrigerated shell eggs at 2 temperatures (22°C and 32°C). For objective 1, 270 fresh shell eggs (3 replications, 90 eggs per replication) were stored at 4°C, 60% relative humidity (RH), then placed at 22°C, 60% RH for 1 h. After this time, 30 pre-weighed eggs were randomly selected and weighed. Thirty eggs were thoroughly wiped with pre-weighed paper towels to collect condensate. Thirty eggs were evaluated with a pinless moisture meter for quantifying egg condensate, which was found to be an ineffective method. There was no difference in quantifying egg condensation by egg weight or weight of moisture absorbed on a paper towel (0.2% vs. 0.19% percentage gain mL condensation/egg surface area) (P > 0.05). For objective 2, 104 fresh eggs formed condensation at 2 temperatures (22°C and 32°C, 60% RH). Each egg weight was continuously recorded from the beginning of condensation formation to the point where the egg reached a constant weight. There was a difference found in the time it took for an egg to reach maximum condensation (11 min at 32°C, 17 min at 22°C), as well as completely dry (25 min at 32°C, 34 min at 22°C) between the 2 temperatures (P

SUMMARY Layer cage cleaning and disinfection are important for disease prevention; however, published research is limited. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of commonly used products on soiled layer cages. Trial one was conducted at a university poultry research farm, and trial two was completed in a commercial pullet house. All products were mixed according to manufacturer recommendations. Treatments consisted of a negative control, a low-pressure water rinse (LPWR, garden hose), a high-pressure water rinse (HPWR, power washer), a soap, a chlorinated cleaner, a quaternary ammonium, a glutaraldehyde, a peroxyacetic acid, a phenolic, a potassium peroxymonosulfate, a hydrogen peroxide, and a quaternary/glutaraldehyde blend product. Swabs of cage floors were collected post treatment to determine if bacterial loads were reduced (P

SUMMARY: Producers and consumers associated with small scale backyard egg production tend to reuse egg cartons. Egg cartons are also reused for arts and craft projects, gardening, and organization units for small items. The reuse of egg cartons is primarily driven by economic or ecological reasons. The ability of zoonotic bacteria, such as Salmonella Enteritidis (SE), to survive on the eggshell surface and a variety of food packaging materials makes the reuse of egg carton risky. This study was aimed at determining the scope of cross-contamination of SE between eggshell and different egg carton types using 2 experiments. Unwashed eggs from end-of-lay white Leghorn hens were used in the experiments. Two different SE strains were used with 3 independent tubes of inocula from each strain as replicates. In Experiment 1, 216 eggs from each SE strain (72/replicate) were inoculated with 10 μL of SE inoculum (~ 9.95 log cfu/mL), allowed to dry in room temperature, and placed in nonadjacent wells of noninoculated plastic, polystyrene foam, and pulp egg cartons. Egg cartons of each type were then stored either at refrigeration (4°C) or room temperature (25°C). After 24 h eggs were discarded and the carton-wells were swabbed for SE recovery. In Experiment 2, wells of egg cartons were inoculated with SE and uninoculated eggs were placed in them and stored similar to Experiment 1. A total of 216 wells within the egg cartons were inoculated for each SE strain (72/replicate). Eggshell samples were collected for SE recovery. Only 3 samples were detected positive for SE in Experiment 1 and no effect of carton type, SE strain, or incubation temperature was observed. In Experiment 2, 8 eggshell samples were SE positive – 6 from polystyrene foam and 2 from plastic carton. Statistical difference was observed for pulp versus polystyrene foam only (P < 0.05). These results indicate that transfer of SE between egg carton and eggshell surface is possible and that the risk of cross-contamination is associated with type of carton material.

SUMMARY Listeria monocytogenes can be present in poultry processing and further processing plants, where it can colonize floor drains. This is a concern as the potential exists for cross-contamination of product contact surfaces or even fully cooked product. Self-contained chlorine dioxide-generating and delivery pods were tested as a means to sanitize uninoculated floor drains and L. monocytogenes-inoculated model floor drains. Free-swimming and attached bacteria were enumerated in drains. Standing water and the inner surface of treated drains had significantly lower bacterial numbers than did untreated drains. Listeria monocytogenes numbers decreased by up to 8.7 log cfu/mL in standing water (>99.999999%) and 6.7 log cfu (>99.9999%) as attached cells. Commercially available chlorine dioxide pods may have practical utility for killing L. monocytogenes during periodic sanitization of floor drains in poultry processing facilities.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the potential use of dried cassava pulp (DCP) with reference to productive performance, nutrient digestibility, egg quality, egg yolk cholesterol, cecal microbial populations, and volatile fatty acids production in laying hens. In experiment 1, a total of 48 laying hens (Isa Brown) were placed in individual cages and assigned randomly to one of 6 dietary treatment groups consisting of a control and 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% DCP for 10 d. Feeding laying hens with diets containing up to 20% DCP did not affect the dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM) digestibility and nitrogen (N) retention (P > 0.05). In experiment 2, a total of 288 laying hens (Isa Brown) were randomly distributed to 6 dietary groups (one control and 5 DCP: 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%) for 12 wk. The results show that diets containing up to 20% DCP had no significant effects on productive performance or egg quality (P > 0.05). The inclusion of DCP at levels of 20 to 25% showed a positive effect on decreased egg yolk cholesterol (P

WOS:000376435100013 This experimental study focuses on the changes to the physical and chemical characteristics of poultry slaughterhouse wastewater sludge exposed to varying microwave radiation energy levels, exposure time, and pH. Soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD), protein, and PO4-P releases obtained from the sludge were quantified as a function of irradiation energy, exposure time, and pH with the help of Box-Benhken statistical design. The maximum solubility values for SCOD (40.9 g/L), maximum protein (10.8g/L), and PO4-P (151 mg/L) were observed at the irradiation energy of about 1,002W with the exposure duration of 90 s at pH = 3. The sludge released 17% of its total COD and 12% of its total phosphorus. The temperature of the sludge sample was increased from 20 to 67 degrees C at exposure to 1,280W for 90 s. The capillary suction time (CST) of sludge samples decreased from an initial value of 200 s to 7.9 s at 1,280W at the exposure time of 50 s. The lowest specific resistance to filtration (SRF) value of 4.06 x 10(14) m/kg was measured at 50 s due to the existence of the dewatering properties in the sludge.

Poultry transportation coops are rarely washed and have been demonstrated to be a point of cross-contamination of broiler carcasses. Foaming disinfectants and cleaners, commonly used within processing plants, may be used to clean and disinfect poultry transportation coops. In this study, homogenized fecal material was evenly applied to the floors of precleaned broiler transportation coops and allowed to dry. Treatments consisted of a water rinse, a foam additive alone, foaming cleaner, and a disinfectant plus a foam additive. All foaming treatments were applied using a compressed air foam system (2,271 L/min; 600 gal/min), similar to what firefighters would use. A high-pressure water rinse (HPWR) was added prior to or following the treatments to determine whether rinsing prior to product application or rinsing after product application would improve efficacy. Based on our data, a compressed air foam system may be used in combination with a commercially available disinfectant or foam cleaner to reduce aerobic bacteria on the surfaces of commercial broiler transportation coops. Furthermore, the addition of a HPWR did not further reduce the level of aerobic bacteria on broiler transportation coop floors.

SUMMARY The study of ammonia emissions from composting poultry mortalities has been a topic of interest due to concerns about air quality effects from agricultural facilities. In previous poultry mortality composting research, it was reported that ammonia emissions are strongly affected by increasing the pH of the compost pile above 8. To verify these findings, a project was initiated to examine composting poultry mortalities while using different amendments within the pile and observing the effects on the gaseous emissions. Each pile was constructed using 2 layers of spent hen carcasses, with one layer below and one layer above the intermediate amendment. Each pile design was constructed in triplicate to assist in data verification and statistical analysis. All piles were constructed using fresh woodchips for the base and cap material. The intermediate amendments were chosen based on their availability, applicability for mortality composting, and pH buffering. The control pile had woodchips as the intermediate amendment, as it had a pH closest to neutral (7.4). The 2 additional pile designs consisted of intermediate amendment layers with either poultry compost, a lower pH material of 5.5, or poultry litter, a slightly higher pH material of 7.5. Air samples were collected using a dynamic flux chamber drawing fresh air across the pile face at a known volumetric flow rate of approximately 370 m 3 /h. Based on the results of this experiment, using poultry litter for composting may not be

SUMMARY Because of fecal shedding from Campylobacter-positive birds, broiler transport cages can be contaminated with Campylobacter, leading to cross-contamination of previously Campylobacter-negative broilers during live haul. Earlier work has shown that drying soiled or washed cages for 24 to 48 h can lower or even eliminate detectable Campylobacter on cage flooring. Because extended drying times are impractical, we tested the use of hot flowing air to speed the process. To determine if the effect was due to heat alone or flowing air alone, hot flowing air was compared with unheated flowing air and static hot air as well as with a benchtop control. The numbers of Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, and coliforms on small squares of washed or unwashed fecally soiled transport cage flooring were measured after drying treatments. When applied after a water spray wash treatment, flowing air at approximately 50°C for 15 min lowered the numbers of Campylobacter to an undetectable level. This represents a tremendous savings in drying time and suggests a potential commercial application. Static heat at similar temperatures was not nearly as effective, and unheated flowing air was moderately effective, but less so than hot air. Processors may be able to use a forced hot air treatment to dry cages between flocks, lessening the number of Campylobacter on cage flooring, thereby decreasing the potential for cross-contamination during live haul.

SUMMARY Biomasses such as peanut hulls or tree clippings have the potential for use in the production of chars, which can in turn be used as tools for environmental improvements. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of chars on reducing NH3 volatilization from poultry litter when used as a surface-applied treatment. The chars used were produced from 3 biomasses: peanut hulls, pine chips, and coconut husks. Peanut hull char (pH 9.2) was produced by pyrolyzing peanut hulls at 400°C for 30 min. The pine chip and coconut husk chars were acidified with sulfuric acid at a final concentration of 53% and had a pH of 2.0. Application rates were 0, 0.24, 0.37 + 0.37, and 0.73 kg/m2 to the floor of pens containing broilers at a commercial density (0.07 m2/bird). The addition of peanut hull char did not reduce NH3 concentrations in the air compared with untreated pine shavings bedding material. However, the use of acidified chars resulted in significant linear reductions in NH3 concentrations. The reduction in NH3 by the acidified chars was likely due to a combination of litter pH reduction and NH3 immobilization by the H2 SO4 on the char. Bird performance was not adversely affected by any of the char treatments.

SUMMARY Dried cassava pulp (DCP), a by-product of cassava starch factory processing, contains a large quantity of starch. Therefore, it is certainly worthwhile to investigate its use as an energy source for poultry feed. Two experiments were conducted to examine the potential use of DCP for broilers. Growth, carcass traits, length and weight of digestive organs, and nutrient digestibility were determined in broilers fed diets containing 0 to 16% DCP. Seven-day-old mixed-sex chicks (n = 240) were randomly distributed to 5 dietary treatment groups through 42 d of age (experiment 1). In experiment 2, a total of 50 chicks were randomly allotted to individual cages at 15 d and fed 1 of 5 diets for 10 d to measure digestibility. Results showed that growth performance and nutrient digestibility decreased with increasing levels of DCP. In most cases, these parameters did not change significantly when DCP was at or below 8%. A significant increase in gizzard weight and a reduction in abdominal fat were also found in broilers fed DCP. In conclusion, it is suggested that DCP be used as an energy source at inclusion levels up to 8% in broiler diets.

The quantity of poultry manure generated each year is large, and technologies that take advantage of the material should be explored. At the same time, increased emphasis on the reduction of mercury emissions from coal-fired electric power plants has resulted in environmental regulations that may, in the future, require application of activated carbons as mercury sorbents. The sorbents could be injected into the flue gas stream, where they could adsorb the mercury. The sorbents (now containing mercury) would be removed via filtration or other means from the flue gas. Our preliminary work has demonstrated that activated carbon made from poultry manure can adsorb mercury from air with good efficiency. In laboratory experiments, an activated carbon made from turkey cake manure removed the majority of elemental mercury from a hot air stream. Other activated carbons made from chicken and turkey litter manure were also efficient. In general, unwashed activated carbons made from poultry manure were more efficient in removing mercury than their acid-washed counterparts. The results suggest that the adsorption of mercury was mainly due to chemisorption on the surface of the carbon. Other potential uses for the activated carbons are the removal of mercury from air and natural gas.

SUMMARY Greater understanding of the mechanisms affecting NH3 volatilization from reused broiler bedding is needed to determine pathways for mitigating NH3 emissions. A chamber acid trap (CAT) system was developed to provide an improved laboratory method for determining NH3 volatilization from litter or cake samples and for assessing treatment technologies to decrease NH3 losses from poultry litter. The CAT system offers precision control of air flow rate through sample chambers as well as straightforward, precise determination of the amount of N volatilized. This article outlines the basic setup of the CAT system. The system can be utilized and modified for researching specific mechanisms involving physical, chemical, or biological treatments affecting NH3 volatilization from litter or cake.

Broiler transport coops become soiled with feces during use. When this fecal matter contains Campylobacter, the result can be cross-contamination of subsequent flocks that were previously free of this important human pathogen. Because washing and sanitizing coops requires large amounts of water and is not always effective enough to justify the expense, few broiler companies wash and sanitize dump coops between flocks. In this lab-scale study, a tap water spray was effective in lowering the numbers of bacteria, including Campylobacter, associated with broiler transport coop flooring. Immersion in a chemical sanitizer after spray washing did not enhance the antibacterial effect. It is possible that sanitizing treatments could be made more effective by using higher concentrations of chemicals, high temperature treatment, or high pressure or repeated applications of water spray. However, such changes would come at a cost. Research is needed to find new and innovative ways to lower bacterial numbers in broiler transport coops without undue use of water and the associated expense.

SUMMARY In order to develop an effective bacterial aerosol sampling system for commercial poultry housing, total bacterial populations were monitored using different air-sampling systems in a poultry layer house. To find the optimum sampling time for the detection of airborne bacteria, an axial fan Puralator filter (a home air conditioning filter attached to a household box fan), a circulating fan filter (glass fiber filter attached to a circulating fan with an adjustable flow rate), and all-glass impinger samples were compared over 2 d. Accumulated samples were collected continuously over 36 h, and nonaccumulated samples were collected concurrently during 4 distinct periods within this 36-h collection period. The air-sampling results also were compared with conventional drag-swab samples from the same poultry house environment. Total bacterial colonyforming units recovered from impingers and circulating fan filters were typically less variable. The axial fan samples by comparison had higher variability. Overall aerosol bacterial counts were higher when collected by the impactors before adjusting for airflow rate. Higher yields of total bacterial colony-forming units were recovered from impingers after being recalculated for airflow rate. The further development of aerosol sampling systems may allow for continuous monitoring of microbial populations in a poultry layer house.

SUMMARY Microbiological concerns in food plant sanitation that relies heavily on physical and chemical methods for removing and killing bacteria could be reduced by the use of non-chemical intervention methods. This initial work on the effects of electrostatic space charge on biofilms shows promise as a viable intervention option for reducing bacterial contamination on surfaces. Natural bacterial populations from a poultry processing facility were collected, allowed to multiply and form biofilms, and assessed for susceptibility to negative air ionization. A small chamber with an electrostatic space charge system was used to treat the mixed bacterial populations that were grown on stainless steel coupons (1 × 4 cm). The object of the system was to transfer a strong negative electrostatic charge to bacteria that were attached to coupons at the base of the chamber. The system effectively decreased the survival levels of bacteria on the stainless steel, with a reduction efficiency of 99.8%. All of the swab samples taken from coupons were culture positive for bacteria, and the bacterial counts from the ionized surfaces were significantly less than for the non-ionized surfaces (P < 0.01). These results demonstrate the potential efficacy of negative air ionization against bacterial contamination on surfaces in the poultry processing environment.

Several non-conventional methods of removing feathers from poultry carcasses, such as simultaneous scalding and picking or steam scalding, reportedly yield better carcass microbiological quality than traditional immersion scalding and in-line picking. Many plants have installed multiple-tank counterflow scalders to reduce the number of bacteria in scald water at the point where carcasses leave the tank. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the microbiological effect of removing feathers from carcasses while they are out of the scald water moving between the tanks of a multiple-tank scalder. Partially defeathered carcasses in such a system would later pass through tanks with cleaner hot water, which might enhance any bactericidal or washing effect of the hot scald water, and much smaller quantities of feces and other contamination should enter the last picking machines. In the laboratory processing plant, however, intermittent scalding and picking of carcasses failed to show any reduction in umbers of aerobic bacteria, E. coli, or Campylobacter on carcasses rinsed immediately after the final defeathering step.

A general recommendation is to keep ammonia levels in poultry facilities below 25 ppm. Unfortunately, a reliable, inexpensive method of determining ammonia levels has not been well established. To address this situation, ammonia concentrations, as determined by the Ammonia Quick Test and the passive dosimeter tube, were compared to the ammonia concentration determined by the gas detector tube. The ammonia Quick Test estimated ammonia levels accurately at levels of 20-25 ppm of ammonia. The passive dosimeter tubes estimated average ammonia levels accurately at low levels of ammonia. Comparisons of ammonia concentration to relative humidity suggest that ammonia can increase much more rapidly than relative humidity.

The light output and lamp life of compact fluorescent (CF) lamps placed in three commercial caged-layer poultry facilities were studied. Only 7- and 9-watt CF lamps were used. This study revealed that the 7-watt lamp maintained 82% of its original light output with 34% of the lamps still operating after 23,000 hr of on time. The 9-watt lamps maintained 71.84% of their original light output with 34% of the lamps still operating after more than 23,000 hr of on time. The mean failure rate for both 7- and 9-watt lamps was 21,480 hr with no ballast failures.

This study investigated the potential subsurface retention of microbes including foodborne pathogens by coatings applied to poultry processing plant walls and ceilings. Recovery and origin of subsurface microbial contamination of an acrylic latex coating in a simulated poultry processing plant environment with or without sanitation were examined in this study. When acrylic latex coatings were inoculated in combination with sanitation, aerobic plate counts (APC) were not significantly (P>.05) different among three different sanitizing materials. The average APC recovered from acrylic latex-coated concrete blocks was significantly (P These data indicate that a chemical sanitizer did not affect the subsurface contamination of acrylic coating and the niche for bacteria in the subsurface of acrylic latex-coated concrete block appears to be the junction between the acrylic latex matrix and the surface of the concrete block rather than the internal space of the acrylic latex matrix.

Three hatcheries were surveyed using the Biotest Reuter Centrifugal (RCS) air sampler and conventional Petri-plate procedures. The RCS sampler was more sensitive in detecting fungi at low levels of contamination. Marked differences in fungal and bacterial levels were detected among the three hatcheries and were attributed to operational and decontamination procedures. Microbiological evaluation of the hatcheries showed higher bacterial and fungal levels on hatching days compared to non-operational days and after cleaning.

Some types of grain sorghum contain tannins which are deleterious to poultry performance. The quantitative test for sorghum, while useful, cannot feasibly be employed in quality control programs in which quick results are needed at the elevator or feed mill. Two qualitative tests, the “scratch” test and the “bleach” test, are described. These tests will help quality control personnel detect sorghums that contain tannins.

Salmonella Enteritidis is a leading food-borne pathogen in the United States, with many outbreaks in humans traced back to shell eggs. As a result, the implementation of effective strategies for reducing Salmonella Enteritidis in commercial layer flocks has become a critical public health and economic objective. In this paper, we share the findings of 2 multistate USDA-National Integrated Food Safety Initiative grant teams and their work aimed at Salmonella Enteritidis reduction in shell eggs. One project, led by K. Venkitanarayanan, is using plant-derived antimicrobial molecules as dietary supplements to reduce Salmonella Enteritidis colonization of the digestive and reproductive tract of chickens. The same molecules are being evaluated for their effect on Salmonella Enteritidis in egg wash solutions. The project led by S. Kariyawasam used on-farm investigation and novel bacterial typing methods to study Salmonella Enteritidis transmission in diverse layer environments to update and optimize Egg Quality Assurance Programs that will significantly reduce Salmonella Enteritidis contamination of shell eggs. The current US Food and Drug Administration Egg Safety Rule and Egg Quality Assurance Programs are based on critical control points and best management practices developed from studies of large flocks (>50,000 hens) conducted in the 1990s, indicating that opportunities exist to improve preharvest programs to reduce Salmonella Enteritidis contamination. This paper will share the findings of these 2 projects.

SUMMARY Two experiments and 3 field trials were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing Large White commercial turkeys. The control bedding was pine shavings (PS) in both experiments and all trials. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), is a chopped paper product made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint following a proprietary paper manufacturing process. In both experiments, hens and toms were reared according to typical industry techniques. In the first experiment, use of AC resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) heavier toms and hens. In the second, the toms brooded and reared on AC were significantly (P < 0.05) heavier than those brooded and reared on PS, whereas toms brooded on one bedding and then reared on the other were intermediate in weight. There were no differences in final cumulative FCR or carcass yield in either experiment. Three field trials were conducted with Large White commercial turkey hens in which the hens were brooded either on PS or AC, with both groups reared on PS. There was a mean increase of 0.2 kg in BW, a decrease (improvement) of 0.03 in FCR, and an increase of 3,200 kg per trial for AC-brooded birds (based on 16,000 hens placed per brooder house). A hard, dry litter crust was observed in the AC houses. With subsequent testing, further changes in the manufacturing process to create a hard, durable pellet may result in a more usable and useful bedding material.

SUMMARY Effect of access to wood shavings and processed paper in the litter bath of modified cages on performance, gizzard activity, plumage condition, and peck damages was studied for layers fed a wheat-based diet. Egg production was similar for all treatments, but birds with access to paper showed higher feed consumption than the control birds and birds with access to wood shavings. This resulted in a corresponding difference (P < 0.05) in feed utilization. A significantly higher AMEn was observed for birds with access to wood shavings than in the control. Consumption of wood shavings and paper from the litter bath was 4 and 11 g/hen per day, respectively. Weights of empty gizzard and gizzard contents were considerably higher for birds with access to wood shavings. The median particle size in the duodenum decreased with access to wood shavings. In contrast, birds with access to paper showed a higher mean particle size in the duodenum.

SUMMARY Functional foods are foods enriched with single ingredients, which influence 1 or more functions of the consumer in a favorable way, exceeding the effects of normal adequate nutrition. Consumers can expect health benefits from these products. The production of functional poultry meat is a promising future perspective, although the market share of such products will be small. The objective of the present paper was to summarize some examples of functional poultry meat. Substances of interest for this purpose are fatty acids and antioxidants. Enrichment of poultry meat with these health-promoting substances is not really a new approach, but there exists a potential for meeting the recommended daily intake for humans despite a probable negative effect on product quality. In the past, many papers were published showing that poultry meat can be enriched with conjugated linoleic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, and Se in such a way that 100 g of enriched tissue meets 3 to 11, 70 to 130, and 60% of the recommended daily intake for humans, respectively. However, the occurrence of tough meat (conjugated linoleic acid) and an increased liability to oxidation (omega-3 fatty acids) may impair the use of functional poultry meat. More research is needed, both on these negative effects on human requirements for these substances and possible interactions between enriched components.

SUMMARY Effect of access to wood shavings on gizzard activity was examined for birds fed pelleted wheat and oat diets with or without whole cereal inclusion. Layers on litter floor fed wheat diets with access to coarse wood shavings showed up to 60% higher weight of the gizzard and its content than caged layers fed the same diets without access to wood shavings. No such effect was found by feeding oat diets. Thus, a significant interaction was found, indicating that the appetite for wood shavings may be dependent of fiber level of the diet. Appetite for wood shavings and paper was examined for birds fed wheat and oat diets in 2 other experiments. The intake of wood shavings and paper by birds fed a wheat-based diet was numerically twice as high as in birds fed an oatbased diet. However, the individual variation was remarkably high. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) concentration in the gizzard of birds fed the oat diet was up to twice (P < 0.05) the fiber concentration in the gizzard of birds fed the wheat diet. Passage of structural fibers through the gizzard and the appetite for feathers in the absence of structural fibers were also studied in an experiment using diets based on rice and casein. Coarse fiber structures were observed to accumulate in the gizzard. In the absence of fiber, birds ate feathers, indicating that birds may eat feathers to compensate for the lack of structural components in the feed.

Eggshell fragments, paper pads from chick boxes, and fluff samples were obtained from three commercial primary breeder hatcheries and analyzed for the presence and level of salmonellae with identical laboratory methods in 1991 and 1998. Overall, 29 of 180 samples (16.1%) from the three hatcheries in 1998 were contaminated with salmonellae, whereas in 1991, 11.1% of the overall samples were found to be salmonellae positive. Salmonellae were detected in 1.7% of eggshell fragments, 1.7% of fluff samples, and 48% of the paper pad samples in 1998, whereas 15.2, 4.5, and 12% of these type samples, respectively, were salmonellae positive in 1991. Although the percentage of positive samples was slightly higher in 1998 than 1991, from an enumeration standpoint, the salmonellae contamination in primary breeder hatcheries seems to have improved in the past 7 yr. In 1998, less than 4% of the positive samples had high levels of salmonellae, whereas in 1991 36% of the positive samples had high numbers of salmonellae. Primary broiler breeder and broiler hatcheries present critical control points in the prevention of salmonellae contamination during commercial poultry production. The cycle of salmonellae contamination will not likely be broken until contamination at these critical points is dramatically reduced or eliminated.

Inorganic sodium selenite (NaSe; 0.1 and 0.3 ppm) and organic selenium yeast (Sel Plex 50: OR; 0.1 and 0.3 ppm) were provided in the diets of broilers placed on four different litter types: 1) ACR paper (diced recycled low-density fiber paper treated with boric acid, 4.5%), 2) shavings (pine wood shavings), 3) diced/cross-cut news print, or 4) 50% mixture of ACR and shavings, in a 32-pen broiler house with curtain side walls. Subjective body feathering scores ranging from 0 (no feathers) to 5 (best) were determined at 3, 5, and 6 wk of age. In experiment 1, feather scores at 6 wk of age were improved significantly with OR supplementation at 0.3 ppm compare to all other selenium treatments, and in Experiment 2 both levels of OR supplementation were associated with improved feathering compared to NaSe supplementation. ACR paper caused reduced feathering in both experiments, and neither NaSe nor OR were sufficient to overcome the problem. In both experiments, OR was associated with better feathering for broilers on all litters at all ages. Performance parameters such as feed conversion ratios were not affected by selenium source even though feathering, an energetically expensive function, was improved in the OR-fed birds.

Pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter on poultry products have been linked with cases of human intestinal disease. Inadequate poultry processing procedures may play a role in producing products that contain high concentrations of Salmonella and Campylobacter. The purpose of this paper was to determine whether different processing procedures provided significant variation in the bacterial contamination of raw, ready-to-cook carcasses. In this experiment, broiler chickens were processed with and without skin as well as with and without evisceration procedures. Standard processed chicken carcasses, with intact skin and viscera removed, had lower bacterial counts than did carcasses without skin or carcasses containing intact viscera (“New York dressed”). Current processing procedures widely used within the poultry industry yield superior product with regard to microbiological quality when compared to the alternative procedures described in this paper.

Two 46-day floor pen experiments evaluated low- and high- density pelleted newspaper as a broiler litter material. Experiment 1 compared fresh pine sawdust (FPS) to fresh low-density paper (FLP). Experiment 2 compared FPS, fresh low-density paper containing an adhesive (FLPA), and fresh high-density paper (FHP) with the used sawdust (UPS) and used low-density paper (ULP) from Experiment 1. All fresh paper materials were placed in pens at one-half the depth (3.8 cm) of the FPS (7.6 cm). Litter type (sawdust vs. paper), age (fresh vs. used), and paper density (low vs. high) had no effect on 46-day body weight, feed conversion, or mortality. Litter moisture was similar and caking was absent among treatments in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, the FLPA resulted in increased cake formation. Broilers reared on FHP had the lowest incidence of breast blisters in Experiment 2. Both low-(without adhesive) and high-density pelleted newspaper are suitable broiler litter materials when placed at one-half the sawdust litter volume.

A 46 day trial was conducted to evaluate the use of shredded newspaper as a litter material for broilers. Four litter treatments were used: 1) wood shavings (WS), 2) wood shavings mixed with paper (WSP), 3) shavings layered over paper (S/P), and 4) paper layered over shavings (P/S). Litter material had no effect on body weight, feed conversion, mortality, or percent leg problems. Feed consumption during days 39 to 46 was significantly higher for broilers grown on WS and ESP. The incidence of breast blisters was lower for birds in the WS treatment than for birds in the other treatments. Newspaper in combination with wood shavings can be a suitable litter if litter moisture can be controlled.

The necessity of finding a replacement for formaldehyde in commercial hatcheries must include careful assessment of the user and environmental friendliness of the compounds. It would be a pointless exercise to replace existing technology (i.e., formaldehyde fumigation) with an equally toxic procedure, or to replace formaldehyde with an ineffective hatching egg sanitizer. This is the first paper of a series describing the screening procedures applied to 23 different sanitizers available in the market. The procedures outlined may be used to screen or compare other products. Brand names which met our standards for user and environmental friendliness include Bioguard, Germex, Iocide-14, Lysovet, Super Quam, Chlorwash, Quam, Quat 800, 1-Stroke, and Coverage 256. Compounds of questionable user and environmental safety are reported in this paper, and some of these compounds (bleach, peroxide, and ozone) are being used routinely in the industry. In order that a more complete comparison could be made, these compounds were further screened for effectiveness against microbial loads on the egg shell and for toxicity to the embryo.

SUMMARY Recent years have seen commercial broilers reach market weights at systematically younger ages. These broilers have more efficient growth rates and higher meat yields due to advances in breeding programs and improvements in poultry husbandry, health, and nutrition. Nonetheless, some critics have voiced concerns with possible negative impacts on the skeletal integrity of broilers. To address these concerns, we provide in this paper time trends of breeding values for 11 to 14 yr for 5 skeletal (limb) health traits in broilers of 3 pedigree pure lines. Results presented are based on well over a million chickens per line. Of the 5 traits, 4 had low heritabilities with the other being low to moderately heritable. Yet through intense and persistent selection, incidence of limb issues has not worsened and has declined in 4 of the traits.

SUMMARY Development of a net energy (NE) system in poultry has been a topic of research for many decades, following its successful implementation in pigs. However, up to now, no such system for poultry is in use, as the added value of a NE system in poultry over the current AME system(s) has not yet been demonstrated. In this paper, the merits and limits of a NE system in poultry are discussed for fast-growing broilers.

SUMMARY Viral infections impose a great threat to backyard chicken production among poor rural households in developing countries. These infections limit the contribution of chicken production in improving the livelihoods of poor communities, particularly in Africa. Chicken viral infections lack treatment options; control and prevention depend primarily on adoption of vaccines and good farm management practice such as the institution of biosecurity measures. In backyard production systems, these control options are less practical and less feasible to implement. Research has demonstrated the role of genetic diversity of farmed animals and birds in explaining variation in resistance to infectious diseases and suggests that heterogeneous populations are less susceptible to disease than homogeneous populations. Local African chicken ecotypes have high genetic diversity and have demonstrated the ability to survive persistent exposure to pathogens and harsh environmental conditions. This suggests that local African chickens have the genetic potential to enhance breeding strategies for resistance to viral infections. Despite the ongoing threat of infectious disease and dynamic of diseases epidemiology attributed by climate change, little has been done to harness the genetic potential of local African chicken ecotypes to breed for resistant traits. To lay the foundation for future research, this review paper presents a summary of challenges facing current chicken viral infections control and prevention options in local African chickens, and gives an overview of documented information on the genetic diversity and population structure of local African chicken ecotypes.

Air emissions generated by poultry operations are numerous and varied in form. The emissions have implications for the environment and for health of humans, animals, and plants. Regulations of emissions are being proposed and implemented; however, available data are inadequate to support the regulations. The current symposium began with a discussion of the present challenges and future direction in regard to air emissions in poultry production. The authors noted the need for further development and implementation of whole farm systems to mitigate air emissions. One problem encountered in emissions research is the lack of satisfactory methods for measuring gas or particulate concentrations and emission rates from poultry buildings. One presentation addressed this in presenting a method for measuring ammonia. The interrelationships of ammonia emission measurement, variations, factors affecting, and regulation constraints were presented in another paper. Other papers explored dietary strategies to reduce nitrogen excretion and bird and house management regimens to reduce emissions. One presentation provided insight into the effects that environmental regulations have had on the animal industries in The Netherlands and the European Union. The symposium concluded with a period of discussion. Paul Patterson (Pennsylvania State University) coordinated the symposium with Roselina Angel (University of Maryland) and Anthony Pescatore (University of Kentucky).

SUMMARY Microbiome plasticity in chickens provides an attractive target for future potential therapeutic platforms. However, a better understanding of the chicken microbial ecology and how interventions such as xylanase addition can modulate this is needed. Interest in xylanase as an essential additive for livestock in manipulating growth performance has been reported as early as 1980s. In this paper, we describe how a new xylanase leads to an array of benefits in broilers, not only by improving broiler performance and nutrient digestibility, but also by clearly improving gut health. Gut health improvements are demonstrated by better intestinal morphology, different volatile fatty acid profile in the gut and even promotion of beneficial over pathogenic micro-organisms in the intestinal tract. Our study confirms that supplementation of xylanase at the lowest dose of 30,000 U/kg (10 g/t) and above significantly improves broiler performance and digestibility. Furthermore, the observation that xylanase can modulate broilers’ intestinal morphology and microbial content beneficially, by stimulating Lactobacilli growth and thus exerting a prebiotic effect, provides novel and useful insights for future applications.

SUMMARY In order to identify the gender of chicken eggs at the early stage of incubation, a machine vision image acquisition system was constructed. Under the light source of LED, the images of 2 batches (186 and 180) of chicken eggs were respectively obtained on d 3, d 4, d 5, d 6, d 8, and d 10 of incubation. Considering the clarity and the integrity of blood vessels in the field of machine vision, the image of d 4 was determined as the basis for gender identification of chick embryos. After image processing, the 11 dimensions of feature parameters depicting the chick's embryonic development were extracted. In this paper, the genetic algorithm (GA) was used to optimize the initial weights and thresholds of backpropagation neural networks (BPNN) with different hidden layers. Then the GA-BPNN with single hidden layer, as well as, double hidden layers was established respectively. According to the research, the comprehensive accuracy of GA-BPNN model with double hidden layers reached 89.74% for the prediction set, which was higher than that of the model with single hidden layer, indicating that optimizing the initial weights and thresholds of BPNN by GA and adding the hidden layer had a certain effect on improving the recognition accuracy. Meanwhile, the results showed that the machine vision technology provided a feasible method for gender identification of chicken eggs at the early stage of incubation.

SUMMARY The immune system is complex, with redundant and overlapping functions. Identifying the correct immune parameters to study the immune status of an animal is challenging. Nutritional immunologists often measure different isotypes of antibodies, hematological parameters, parasite loads, functional assays of macrophages and T cells, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, phosphorylation status of proteins involved in signaling pathways, and several other parameters to identify the immune status of birds. Papers in which authors misinterpret immune parameters are common. This article discusses the drawbacks of some of the common interpretations of several immunological assays available for nutritional immunologists.

SUMMARY The supply of dietary energy is of critical importance to all animals and is of large economic impact for the poultry industry. Over time, livestock nutritionists have refined the measurement of dietary energy, and the expression of energy requirements from digestible energy (DE), to metabolizable energy (ME), and ultimately to net energy (NE), subdivided into NE for maintenance and NE for production. Commercial dairy, beef, and swine nutritionists have largely moved to expressing energy in terms of NE, but the poultry industry has not been as quick to make the transition from ME. The symposium papers explore the benefits and limitations in the use of NE for broilers, strengths and limitations of various sources of feedstuff energy values, the partitioning of dietary energy into retained energy and heat production, and the utilization of synthetic amino acids for energy by the bird.

Summary A ban on using antibiotics as growth promoters in the diet of commercial poultry and swine in most developed countries and the public trend in consuming organic animal products have resulted in increasing the use of natural substances in feeding farm animals. Among different available alternatives, the beneficial impacts of phytogenic feed additives (PFA) and organic acids (OA) on the performance of poultry—and specifically broiler chickens—have been proven by previous researchers. Mostly it has been reported that PFA and/or OA improve the performance of animals by modulating the intestinal microflora in favor of beneficial bacteria like lactobacilli. There are also some published papers showing that the addition of PFA and/or OA is not significantly beneficial on broiler chickens’ performance. It has been suggested that rapid absorption or metabolism of these additives upon entering the duodenum is the reason. Therefore, protecting the additives from early metabolism and absorption can be an approach to increase their effectiveness.

SUMMARY The poultry industry is considered one of the most efficient industries in producing animal protein. Poultry production consists of several main segments: broilers, commercial eggs, turkeys, ducks, and other poultry, including geese, guinea-fowl, pheasants, quail, and ratites. Currently, ostrich meat is marketed as a healthy red meat because it is characterized by high polyunsaturated fatty acid contents, low saturated fatty acid content, and low cholesterol level compared with red meats, such as beef, while tasting similar to lean beef. Ostrich meat contains lower sodium and higher iron contents than other kinds of meat, making it preferable to hypertensive people and those with anemia. Taken together, ostrich meat is considered as an ideal red meat for individuals seeking healthier lifestyle. Moreover, many different ostrich products, such as leather and feathers, are used by people. The current review paper considers the quality characteristics of ostrich meat, including physical traits, and compares it to other types of meats, such as bovine and other poultry meats.

SUMMARY Several plant-derived antimicrobials have been tested under laboratory or research farm conditions and have been shown to be effective in reducing the colonization and shedding of Salmonella Enteritidis from laying hens and broiler chickens when added to the feed. How well these particular compounds or essential oils work under commercial conditions is yet to be determined. Some of the practical implications of using these compounds in commercial poultry feed or diets are discussed in this paper. In general, an ample supply of many of these compounds exist, they are relatively easily mixed with other feed ingredients, and are effective at relatively small amounts. The cost of adding to the feed is still a variable and the total economic effect can only be estimated at this point.

In this paper, we estimate the costs and benefits of implementing the proposed National Organic Program for laying hens compared with alternatives. For the regulatory proposals under option 2, the regulatory cost will be zero because most producers are already in compliance with the proposed regulation. The anticipated benefits of this regulation will be zero as well, because the current market prices already reflect consumers’ willingness to pay for the existing animal welfare conditions. For the regulatory proposals under option 3, before market adjustments, the average regulatory burden for the entire organic egg industry will amount to $0.09 per dozen eggs, with extreme variations between $0 for small operations and $2.30 per dozen for large operations. If we rely on the average price of organic eggs, $2.69 per dozen, and assume a maximum estimated benefit associated with improved animal welfare conditions, that consumers would be willing to pay of about 30% above the current market price, the estimated benefit of regulation amounts to $0.81 per dozen eggs. Based on the findings, we conclude that option 2 is welfare neutral and could be easily adopted because it already has been adopted by representative producers. For option 3, the benefit-cost ratio is larger than 1, which indicates that the proposal passes the benefit-cost ratio test. The obtained result, however, has to be interpreted with serious reservation because of the differential effect that the proposed regulation would have on different industry participants. Under option 3, the effect of the proposed changes on small organic egg producers is negligible because most small producers are operating under conditions similar to the proposed living standards. However, costs will increase substantially for large organic egg producers and likely cause a substantial number of producers to exit organic production and switch to conventional production, which would cause a substantial decline in the prices of conventional eggs and organic feed in the short run.

SUMMARY In this paper, we present a review of the current knowledge of calcium and phosphorus metabolism as it relates to homeostatic mechanisms in poultry; contrasts with mammalian systems, as well as information that is available for mammalian systems but not for avian systems, are included. The importance of understanding these homeostatic mechanisms and their effect on Ca and P absorption are discussed briefly in the context of correctly formulating poultry diets. Clearly deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in Ca and P result in a cascade of changes, including increases or decreases in the absorption of these 2 minerals from the intestinal lumen. The effect of these changes on the actual digestibility of Ca and P from ingredients or diets has not been determined yet; most of the methodologies we used for the determination of P digestibility are done under deficient conditions. The methods used to determine the release of Ca and P from diets when phytases were used were also done under deficient Ca and P conditions. Given the effect of Ca and P homeostatic mechanisms on absorption, methodologies and, possibly, the quantitative the effect of these homeostatic mechanisms on values generated for Ca and P should be reviewed before they can confidently be applied.