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This paper examines research in the area of leadership and the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) by scoping literature through a systematic approach. The purpose of this study is to identify trends and gaps relating to issues addressed, theoretical and conceptual approaches, methodologies, geographical representation of research, and future research directions in the area. In all, 45 articles were sampled through a predetermined selection criteria and analysed using descriptive statistics. The results indicate that four major issues investigated in multiple sectors dominate the area. Besides, a number of theories were found to have been used in understanding the topic, while in terms of methodology, there appears to be a fair distribution of papers using qualitative and quantitative approaches but an imbalance between cross‐sectional and longitudinal designs. Again, most of the studies were conducted at the meso and micro levels and were produced in Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, Australia, and South America in that ranking order. Overall, it was realised that because of the emerging nature of the 4IR phenomenon, research work in the area is now rising, requiring further research output to address the gaps identified through this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the North American conference on the social implications of industrialization and technological change. The conference, sponsored jointly by UNESCO, the United States and Canadian National Commissions for UNESCO, and the University of Chicago, was held in Chicago, Illinois from September 15 to 22, 1960. Twenty-four technical papers prepared and distributed in advance were discussed during the conference. In addition, a series of some twelve working papers surveying the research results for the major regions of the world on the topic of the conference were assembled and distributed to participants by the Research Office of the International Social Science Council. The various aspects of the social implications of industrialization were dealt with quite fully in the technical papers and at the several sessions of the conference. The discussion of the specific social implications of industrialization started with what some would regard as the fundamentals, the human motivation to make constructive innovations. The papers and discussions seem to warrant certain conclusions with regard to research strategies and procedures, on the one hand, and major gaps in reliable knowledge, on the other.

This section presents several abstracts of articles related to social science including Development Economics and the Compensation Principle by Ravi Kanbur.

The article presents an announcement regarding the Twentieth Congress of the International Institute of Sociology to be held from September 12-18, 1962, at Corboda in Argentina. The decision to hold this international meeting was taken on account of the interest the Latin American countries present from the point of view of sociological studies. The bureau decided that the subjects should centre round a single theme, the "Sociology of Societies in the Process of Industrial Development," a subject designed to give all sociologists an opportunity to make their own contribution either to theoretical or to practical research. Virtually all aspects of sociology are covered, so that experts specializing in different branches can report on their own fields. Applications for enrollment should be made on the form attached to the information pamphlet and sent to the committee as soon as possible. Papers must deal with purely sociological subjects, and they must be not more than 20 pages in length, typewritten, with double spacing. Papers must be drafted in English, French, German, Italian or Spanish, and must have a summary in French attached with them.

This section provides abstracts of several articles about science and research. The article by Pnina Geraldine Abir-Am explores the cultural context of the new transdisciplinary field of molecular biology in the three countries that did the most to establish it -- Great Britain, the U.S., and France. It inquires into three aspects of each of these national cultures that may help explain its prominence as a cradle of molecular biology: political culture, intellectual culture; and institutional culture. Rigas Arvanitis and Hebe Vessuri offers a microanalysis of collaboration between scientific researchers in different countries. This is particularly helpful as a means of understanding complex trends in scientific research, the position that a country occupies in a particular scientific field, and also the influence of cultural variables on scientific communication. Meanwhile, the paper written by James Mullin examines the changes in government policies relating to the funding of scientific research which have seen the reliance on the direct funding of individual researchers. Linsu Kim offers an analytical framework which examines how industrialization takes place through the development of technological capability in interactions with the evolution of market competition, government policy, corporate strategy, and social culture in the context of developing countries.

The article presents information on various documents and publications of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, as of February 1, 1961. "International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy," is an index of more than 2,100 papers classified by subject and by author. "Report of International Law Commission Covering the Work of its 12th Session, 25 April- July 1, 1960," gives a draft article on consular intercourse and immunities and another relating to special missions. "Second Report on Consular Intercourse and Immunities," is a report, that deals with the question of the personal inviolability of consuls and of their exemption from penal jurisdiction, as well as with the application of the man favored nation clause in the matter of consular intercourse and immunities.

The International Social Science Council and the International Research Office on Social Implications of Technological Change held a round table conference, devoted to the social implications of technological change, as of August 1, 1958. According to the work programme, the discussion was centred on three aspects, i.e. changes occurring at the level of the firm, the family and the community. A historical and geographical comparison was also planned with the intention of demonstrating these differences between the industrialization process of the 19th and the early 20th century and the development to be observed today in new regions. Reports specially prepared by some participants provided the basis for discussion at each meeting. Most of these papers examined the problem of social change by means of an analysis of the situation in a particular country and the discussion was almost always directed to general situations which these national and regional analyses made it possible to identify.

The article presents evidence that economic, cultural and political change are linked in coherence, as modernization theory claimed. From the perspective of cultural relativism, it would be ethnocentric not to believe that all cultures are equally conducive to economic development and democracy. This paper analyses an unprecedented body of data on the values and beliefs of the publics of 43 societies representing 70 per cent of the world's population. Conversely, these cross-national comparisons provide hints about how the outlook of the publics of poorer countries may change, if their societies become industrialized and economically secure. Together these two postulates imply that some patterns are more probable than others, and hence that development is to some extent predictable. Secularization is one of the pervasive tendencies linked with modernization. This holds true although it is often asserted today that there is a rapid growth of fundamentalist religion throughout the world. Within the last 25 years, a major change in the direction of change has occurred, which might be called the postmodern shift. Marxists and capitalists disagreed about how the fruits of production should be distributed, both sides shared an unspoken consensus that economic growth was a good thing.

This article focuses on accepted projects by MOST. This project obtained the MOST label from the Scientific Steering Committee on its meeting of December 1994. The project seeks to take a new look at those economic and social theories of change, which, over the past three decades, have inspired and to some extent governed development strategies in countries from the South. One of the basic premises of the work of this network is an opposition to uniformed approaches to development strategies that make little or no reference to concrete situations and the relevant local specificities that may strongly differentiate one country from another in the development process. A forthcoming MOST Policy Paper documents these variables, and provides a framework for considering them in socio-economic policy formulation, development policies and project development. The second step within the first phase of this five-year research project is to measure the role played by the global international environment, particularly the influence of external exchange on the acquirement of institutional forms and models as well as on the pace of the industrialization process.

An analytical framework examines how industrialisation takes place through the development of technological capability in interactions with the evolution of market competition, government policy, corporate strategy, and social culture in the context of developing countries. The framework is applied to Korea to describe the dynamics of technological learning in the industrialisation process. The Korean experience suggests a set of implications for other developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the problem related to the "underdeveloped study of underdeveloped countries." Development economics have been singled out as a special subdiscipline by economists for more than two decades. Universal models are still used by students of foreign-policy analysis to explain the policies of both developed as well as underdeveloped countries, with the implicit assumption that all these actors are interchangeable. This is just a reflection of the general assumption of many researchers who maintain a rigid distinction between national and international political systems despite mounting evidence that the distinction is breaking down. According to the author, if this was not the case, the tendency to view nation-states as monolithic units whose value systems and internal processes are of secondary importance for understanding their external conduct would not have been upheld for so long. Sociologists like the author, question this all-pervasive assumption. More generally the field of foreign-policy analysis is criticized for its inadequate theoretical content, its lack of rigor in analysis and-as far as third-world actors are concerned-its failure to establish a link in the proposed analytical constructs between the international behavior of these new national actors and the societal-psychological variables that constitute the essence of their identities. The article starts with an overview of the foreign policy literature concerning third world actors. It then proceeds to a more detailed critical analysis of the decision-making model and Rosenau's efforts at theory-building in foreign-policy analysis. The last part of the article suggests some hypotheses and an alternative model, the situation-role model for the analysis of foreign policy-making amongst third-world actors, based on these actors frame of reference. The author concludes with a note on the place of the proposed model in current international-relations theory.

This article refers to some policy considerations arising from actual mechanisms of technology purchase by developing countries within or outside the framework of direct foreign investment. Given the complexity and extent of the subject matter we will not deal with issues related to the selection of appropriate technologies nor with the existence of domestic scientific and technological activities which are complemented or substituted by know-how flows from abroad. Furthermore, we will not deal with broader issues referring to the re-enforcing interrelationship between income distribution, consumption structures and technology utilization. Rather, we will limit ourselves to the evaluation of the process by which production know-how becomes a negotiable unit which is traded among transnational enterprises and developing countries. Thus, a reference has been made to the market within which technology is being commercialized. In the latter part of the article parallel conclusions are drawn between the experience of developing countries on concession agreements in extractive industries in the first part of this century and their negotiations in technology licensing agreements in the 1960s. The empirical evidence provided comes from research undertaken in the Andean Pact countries.

Urbanization requires organization. Rapid urbanization without planning results in chaos. Industrialization and population explosion are two major factors resulting in rapid and uncontrolled rate of urban growth. In coming decades, the projected rate of urbanization especially in developing countries is of such a magnitude that unless major effort and collaboration are made to study and tackle this problem, the eventual extent of added human misery will be difficult to measure. To meet the challenge of the impending urban crisis, urgent effort will have to be made to establish basic planning criteria especially in developing countries. Whether these planning criteria can be universally applicable, will have to be carefully examined. Governments will need to be more aware of urban problems and take appropriate action for implementation. Multidisciplinary approach will be essential in the attempt to achieve suitable and acceptable solutions for a planned urban environment. International initiative and co-operation will be required to activate research programmes and to provide for more effective utilization of the limited expert knowledge available. Public participation in the planning process must be encouraged. With great effort and sufficient goodwill, it may just be possible to meet the challenge of the impending urban crisis in coming decades.

Japan has undergone tremendous economic and social changes. The prodigious economic growth of the 1960's has lifted Japan to third place among highly industrialized countries in terms of its gross national product. Technological innovations in industrial processes and production which have contributed to this economic development have become so widespread as to include even the process of management, and the introduction of various modern managerial techniques is making Japan into a computerized managerial society. According to the 1965 census, about 70 per cent of the total population of 98 million lives in cities, and 45 out of every 100 persons are concentrated in greater Tokyo, Japan, whose population increased by 5.5 million between 1955 and 1965. Urbanization at this speed and on such a scale has brought with it, in both urban and rural areas, many serious problems which lead to changes in the traditional outlook and customs, and, above all, in social and cultural values. The rise of new generations, the popularization of higher education, widespread ownership of television sets, etc., have contributed to these changes.

The article attempts to identify and portray a few of the major social changes or trends at present under way in the rural portions of society in the U.S. The study refers to the time when rapid, deep-cutting, drastic social change is the order of the day throughout all parts of rural and urban areas of the most populous nation in the Western hemisphere. Drastic change in the size of the farms is one of the most striking of the current social trends in the agricultural districts of the U.S. Among the most important of the traditional types of farming in the U.S. are general farming, the con-hog-beef-cattle variety, dairy husbandry, cotton culture, wheat growing, the cultivation of tobacco, cattle ranching, the production of citrus fruits and the rice-beef-cattle combination of enterprises. In many respects the tremendous improvement in the ways of farming, or the system of agriculture, used by farmers in the U.S. in order to secure crop and live-stock products from the soil is the most spectacular of all the rural social trends in the now highly industrialized U.S. An abrupt decrease in the numbers and proportions of lower class and lower middle class farm families is perhaps the most momentous and consequential of the recent social trends.

The East African industrial labour force still largely revolves between town and country. Despite recommendations in favour of urban stabilization, this has its advantages. Industrial employment opportunities are expanding less rapidly than the demand for them, especially since production techniques are tending towards greater capital-intensivity. Parallels with early industrialization in England and the United States are largely irrelevant: factors other than urban stabilization of industrial labour appear to be more important for the development of East Africa today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Levels of economic development are characterized by differences in kind and complexity of economic organizations and productive units. Even similar basic needs are nut in varying ways, according to the available resources. Class stratification and socio-psychological action patterns form strategic variables linked to development levels. Underdeveloped countries typically display sharp social polarities, steep ranking, low mobility, a disregard for economic performance as status-conferring. Ascription-achievement and diffusion-specificity are key dichotomies. The effect of specificity on productivity reflects back on stratification, while achievement-orientation makes individual mobility across groups possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of rapid development on social structure and patterns of mobility must be explored. Yet, there is little relationship between mobility patterns and development. Recent findings show a considerable similarity of career aspirations in very divergent settings. Status concomitants linked to education may vary with the proportion and absolute size of the educated population. Educational attainments should also increase the amount of high achievement orientation. Downward mobility is a feature of emerging industrialization, but little is yet known about its effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The labour force is one of the basic indices for the evaluation of such aspects of a society as its overall structure, its institutional relationships and its inclination either to foster or resist social change. In underdeveloped countries, the condition of the working population is not only an indication of the leeway they have to make up in order to reach economic goals reflected in higher levels of consumption for the majority of the population. It also reveals the magnitude of these problems which have to be faced if these goals are to be reached. Industrialization, which is new to countries in this part of America, is not only assimilating people who come from rural areas or from small towns and villages, in cities themselves a gradient has been produced which extends from the most traditional sectors of the economy to the most modern, represented in this case by industry.

The article focuses on various problems of sociology of leisure. Activity is no longer confined to work, that the working day is no longer completely filled by toil, but includes from two to three hours of leisure. The working week tends to diminish to five days, with two Sundays. Working years no longer follow one another without interruption, but are separated by two or three weeks of holidays. In the worker's life, the rise in the standard of living has thus been paralleled by a steady increase in the allowance of free time. The industry that caters for leisure has a fertile imagination and the public is always on the watch for the next offer. A point, which must be emphasized, that mechanization has further disturbed the balance between work and leisure. It has lightened the burden of actual work but very often to the detriment of the interest and scope of that work. On the other hand, the increased output of automobiles, the growing number of man communication techniques, development of clubs and group have done far more to add to the enjoyment of leisure time activities than mechanization has so far done to reduce man's traditional burden of toil.

The new environment of man in industrialized societies is characterized by an increasingly extensive and tightly woven web of techniques, of which, industrial mechanization the whole complex of production machinery and equipment contained in workshops and offices of industrial enterprises is a part. Technical environments in differently organized societies posses, despite disparities, certain analogous features, both in the functioning of their institutions and in individual behavior patterns. It is from the sum total of cultural traits that a civilization is built up. In the present day world it is the combination of culture traits. Besides providing increasing quantities of more and more highly perfected productive machinery and goods, a technological civilization also gives rise to what is called spare time, i.e. time that is spared and, at least on the face of it, clearly differentiated from working time. Technical change brings in its wake, everywhere, spare time, all possibilities of leisure and the pursuit of happiness, of the good life as expressed in terms of the material and moral conditions of the new environment.