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Simple Summary: Orb-weaving spiders can learn to avoid eating unpalatable prey, but what happens when they encounter one that they have never seen before? In the United States, a spider from East Asia has become established (the "jorō spider") in recent years, and their webs are most prominent during the late-summer and fall, which is also when migrating monarch butterflies are in abundance. Since monarch butterflies are unpalatable (because of developing on toxic milkweeds), we wondered if jorō spiders would recognize this and avoid eating them, given that these species do not coexist in East Asia. Using field observations of butterflies deposited into jorō spider webs, we found that these spiders do avoid eating monarchs, and even remove them from their webs in some cases. They readily attack other butterflies, even those that are similarly colored to monarchs. This raises many questions about how they perceive the "distastefulness" of monarchs, even without tasting the butterflies first. An invasive spider from East Asia has established in the U.S. southeast (the "jorō spider," Trichonephila clavata) and is rapidly expanding its range. Studies assessing the impact of this species are needed, including how expansive its diet is. An open question is whether monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus, are a potential prey item for this spider, given that jorō spiders do not coexist with monarchs in their native range. Since monarch larvae feed on milkweed, they sequester cardiac glycosides into their adult tissues, rendering them unpalatable to many predators. At sites within northeast Georgia, we staged a series of trials (n = 61) where we tossed monarchs into jorō spider webs and, for comparison, performed similar trials with another aposematic species, gulf fritillary (Agraulis vanilla), and a palatable species, tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus). We recorded the outcome of the trials, which included whether the spider attacked or did not attack the prey. We also conducted a visual survey during the same fall season to look for evidence of jorō spiders consuming monarchs naturally. Our findings revealed that jorō spiders avoided eating monarchs; spiders only attacked monarchs 20% of the time, which was significantly less than the attack rates of similarly sized or larger butterflies: 86% for gulf fritillaries and 58% for tiger swallowtails. Some jorō spiders even removed monarchs from their webs. From our visual surveys of the surrounding area, we found no evidence of natural monarch consumption and, in general, butterflies made up only a fraction of the jorō spider diet. We conclude that jorō spiders appear to recognize monarch butterflies as being unpalatable, even without having a prior history with the species. This invokes questions about how these spiders can immediately recognize their unpalatability without touching the butterflies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are many events in the lives of insects where rapid, effective stress reactions are needed, including fighting conspecifics to defend territories, evading predators, and responding to wounds. A key element of the stress reaction is elevation of heartrate (HR), for enhancing distribution of blood (hemolymph) to body compartments. We conducted two experiments designed to improve understanding of the insect stress reaction and how it is influenced by parasitism in a common beetle species (Odontotaenius disjunctus). By non-destructively observing heartbeat frequency before, during and after applying a stressor (physical restraint) for 10 min, we sought to determine: (1) the exact timing of the cardiac stress reaction; (2) the magnitude of heartrate elevation during stress; and (3) if the physiological response is affected by a naturally-occurring nematode parasite, Chondronema passali. Restraint caused a dramatic increase in heartrate, though not immediately; maximum HR was reached after approximately 8 min. Average heartrate went from 65.5 beats/min to a maximum of 81.5 (24.5% increase) in adults raised in the lab (n = 19). Using wild-caught adults (n = 77), average heartrates went from 54.9 beats/min to 74.2 (35.5% increase). When restraint was removed, HR declined after ~5 min, and reached baseline 50 min later. The nematode parasite did not affect baseline heartrates in either experiment, but in one, it retarded the heartrate elevation during stress, and in the other, it reduced the overall magnitude of the elevation. While we acknowledge that our results are based on comparisons of beetles with naturally-occurring parasite infections, these results indicate this parasite causes a modest reduction in host cardiac output during acute stress conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) throughout the world are commonly infected by the specialist pathogen Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE). This protozoan is transmitted when larvae ingest infectious stages (spores) scattered onto host plant leaves by infected adults. Parasites replicate internally during larval and pupal stages, and adult monarchs emerge covered with millions of dormant spores on the outsides of their bodies. Across multiple monarch populations, OE varies in prevalence and virulence. Here, we examined geographic and genetic variation in OE spore morphology using clonal parasite lineages derived from each of four host populations (eastern and western North America, South Florida and Hawaii). Spores were harvested from experimentally inoculated, captive-reared adult monarchs. Using light microscopy and digital image analysis, we measured the size, shape and color of 30 replicate spores per host. Analyses examined predictors of spore morphology, including parasite source population and clone, parasite load, and the following host traits: family line, sex, wing area, and wing color (orange and black pigmentation). Results showed significant differences in spore size and shape among parasite clones, suggesting genetic determinants of morphological variation. Spore size also increased with monarch wing size, and monarchs with larger and darker orange wings tended to have darker colored spores, consistent with the idea that parasite development depends on variation in host quality and resources. We found no evidence for effects of source population on variation in spore morphology. Collectively, these results provide support for heritable variation in spore morphology and a role for host traits in affecting parasite development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When the wing sizes of all collections are plotted side by side (Figure 1), it becomes obvious that the traditionally migratory western North American monarchs have wings that are as large as those from the east, which is consistent with the current evidence that eastern and western monarchs are not dissimilar [[24]], and that the demands of long-distance migration select for large wing size [[26]]. Here, I contest this claim by showing how the monarchs reared in that study were smaller than traditionally-migratory western monarchs, and in fact resembled the size of every other non-migratory population of monarchs studied. Table 1 Summary of published data on monarch wing lengths from around the world for comparison with James et al., 2021, who reared monarchs in winter in California. Monarchs Reared in Winter in California Are Not Large Enough to Be Migrants. [Extracted from the article]

Simple Summary: Neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticides in North America and many studies document the negative effects of neonicotinoids on bees. Monarch butterflies are famous for their long-distance migrations, and for their ability to sequester toxins from their milkweed host plants. The neonicotinoids imidacloprid and clothianidin were suggested to correlate with declines in North American monarchs. We examined how monarch development, survival, and flight were affected by exposure to neonicotinoids, and how these effects depend on milkweed host plant species that differ in their cardenolide toxins. Monarch survival and flight were unaffected by low and intermediate neonicotinoid doses. At the highest dose, neonicotinoids negatively affected monarch pupation and survival, for caterpillars that fed on the least toxic milkweed. Monarchs fed milkweed of intermediate toxicity experienced moderate negative effects of high insecticide doses. Monarchs fed the most toxic milkweed species had no negative consequences associated with neonicotinoid treatment. Our work shows that monarchs tolerate low neonicotinoid doses, but experience detrimental effects at higher doses, depending on milkweed species. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show that host plant species potentially reduce the residue of neonicotinoid insecticides on the leaf surface, and this phenomenon warrants further investigation. Neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticides in North America. Numerous studies document the negative effects of neonicotinoids on bees, and it remains crucial to demonstrate if neonicotinoids affect other non-target insects, such as butterflies. Here we examine how two neonicotinoids (imidacloprid and clothianidin) affect the development, survival, and flight of monarch butterflies, and how these chemicals interact with the monarch's milkweed host plant. We first fed caterpillars field-relevant low doses (0.075 and 0.225 ng/g) of neonicotinoids applied to milkweed leaves (Asclepias incarnata), and found no significant reductions in larval development rate, pre-adult survival, or adult flight performance. We next fed larvae higher neonicotinoid doses (4–70 ng/g) and reared them on milkweed species known to produce low, moderate, or high levels of secondary toxins (cardenolides). Monarchs exposed to the highest dose of clothianidin (51–70 ng/g) experienced pupal deformity, low survival to eclosion, smaller body size, and weaker adult grip strength. This effect was most evident for monarchs reared on the lowest cardenolide milkweed (A. incarnata), whereas monarchs reared on the high-cardenolide A. curassavica showed no significant reductions in any variable measured. Our results indicate that monarchs are tolerant to low doses of neonicotinoid, and that negative impacts of neonicotinoids depend on host plant type. Plant toxins may confer protective effects or leaf physical properties may affect chemical retention. Although neonicotinoid residues are ubiquitous on milkweeds in agricultural and ornamental settings, commonly encountered doses below 50 ng/g are unlikely to cause substantial declines in monarch survival or migratory performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]