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Aging is one of the risk factors for delayed fracture healing. Sonic hedgehog (SHH) protein, an inducer of embryonic development, has been demonstrated to be activated in osteoblasts at the dynamic remodeling site of a bone fracture. Herein, we compared and examined the distribution patterns of SHH and the functional effect of SHH signaling on osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis between young (5-week-old) and aged (60-week-old) mice during fracture healing. We found that SHH was expressed in bone marrow cells from the fractured site of the rib of young mice on day 5, but was barely detectable in the corresponding cells from the rib of aged mice. SHH was also detected in osteoblasts and bone marrow cells at the callus remodeling stage on days 14 and 28 in both young and aged mice. The number of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)-positive osteoblasts was significantly higher in young mice on days 5 and 14, whereas the number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive osteoclasts was significantly higher in aged mice. SHH stimulated significantly more osteoblast formation in the young compared to old mice. SHH stimulated the osteoclast formation directly in the aged mice and suppressed the formation indirectly through osteoprotegerin expression in the young mice. Results indicate that an aged-related delay of fracture healing may contribute to the unbalanced bone formation and resorption, regulated by hedgehog signaling.

Connective tissue growth factor (CCN2) regulates diverse cellular functions, including tooth development. In order to delineate the precise role of CCN2 in the epithelium during odontogenesis, we investigated how it is expressed and what roles it may have in primary cultures of epithelial cells derived from developing tooth germ of the bovine fetus. Ccn2 mRNA and protein were strongly expressed in the inner dental epithelium, which is consistent with the expression of transforming growth factor-β2 mRNA and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) were also expressed in the inner dental epithelium, indicating that CCN2 functionally interacts with these factors in the epithelium. The stimulatory effects of FGF2 on cell proliferation and BMP4 on cell differentiation were additively up-regulated by CCN2 in a newly-established dental epithelium cell culture. Taken together, our data provide clear evidence that CCN2 is synthesized by inner dental epithelial cells, and appears to act as an autocrine factor, which regulates dental epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation in concert with growth factors.