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This paper investigates the impact of human out-migration on long-standing commons institutions in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca. Local communities have been increasingly engaged with national and international markets for wage labour, with many losing a significant percentage of their resident populations. This paper shows how demographic and cultural change is impacting the two social institutions-cargos and tequios-that underpin the highly autonomous form of governance the region is famed for. The loss of able-bodied men and women has meant that these customary systems are struggling to remain operational. A number of responses and institutional adaptations have been introduced by community authorities, including the forging of translocal ties that show potential for reducing the vulnerability of affected villages. While migration was temporary or circular from the 1970s to the 1990s, more permanent forms of migration have come to dominate since that time. Such a shift undermines adaptation efforts at the community level. Within this context, the lessons for commons theory are discussed, while a new layer of complexity is added to the body of work examining the consequences of rural depopulation on Mexican village life and landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National Parks in Mexico are home to small communities. Whereas productive activities are by definition prohibited within park limits, restoration and conservation practices are encouraged. One way to benefit the inhabitants of these parks is to promote conservation practices that can be productive at the same time. This paper describes and evaluates the practice of regular pruning of Abies religiosa (HBK) in the Cofre de Perote National Park as both a measure to prevent forest fires and a means to obtain the raw material for the manufacturing of Christmas wreaths. Under the guidance of our university research team, over a period of 3 years, local women pruned trees over a total area of 36 ha and used part of the pruning waste (2.71 %) to make the wreaths. The income generated from pruning and from sale of the wreaths contributes significantly to household expenses. We describe the collaboration between the local Women's Group, the academic team, a federal government agency and the local authorities. The study concludes that the laws regulating national parks in Mexico should specifically stress the importance of allowing productive activities compatible with conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal wetlands are rich and productive ecosystems historically used by small-scale fisheries due to their role as refuges and nursery habitats for commercial target species. We document the environmental history of coastal wetlands in the Northern Gulf of California, Mexico, through bibliographic sources, photographic records, and wetland resource users' Local Ecological Knowledge. We identify impacts that could have affected coastal fisheries by assessing historical patterns of commercial species abundance, areas of fishing importance, trophic levels, and species richness and composition. Areas of fishing importance within coastal wetlands decreased over time. We found a consistent downward trend in target species abundance that was perceived as more pronounced by fishers who began fishing in or prior to the 1950s, pointing to shifting baselines and the failure of resource users to recognize environmental changes and accept degraded states as normal. Perceived species richness and composition increased with wetland size. The trophic level of catch showed no distinct pattern across wetland sites or over time. Our analysis is relevant to food security and provides insight into how local populations adapt to depleted coastal food webs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines land-use changes and continuities following historic price declines and withdrawal of government support for coffee cultivation in Veracruz, Mexico. A time series analysis of satellite imagery from the municipalities of Xico and Coatepec was carried out to assess changes in one of Latin America's oldest coffee-producing regions. Two case study communities were selected for in-depth assessment, including semi-structured interviews, household surveys and participant observation. This study demonstrates while small parcels were converted to new land-uses, 82 % of coffee/forest remained intact during the height of the global coffee crisis. I document how smallholders maintained historic agro-ecological spaces in the wake of destabilizing economic reforms. I argue cultural identity and access to new livelihood options combine to subsidize reproduction of coffee forests on the landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores social arrangements associated with seed transactions among small-scale maize farmers in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico, where no formal seed supply system exists. We test the hypothesis that individual farmers have strong incentives to participate in some form of collective action to ensure their access to seed. Six communities were studied, three of them in detail, using in-depth, semistructured interviews with key informants; focus group discussions; and a tracer study that followed seed flows among farmers. Farmers mostly saved seed and only occasionally acquired seed from outside sources. We found no evidence of a specialized social organization based on collective action to mediate seed flows. Seed transactions are infrequent, bilateral, and ad hoc, although trust is an important component, as it ensures reliable information about the seed is provided. Implications of these findings are discussed, especially for genetic diversity if the current supply system breaks down. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The collective construction of environmental management and natural resource conservation strategies can empower and reduce marginalized communities' material and political dependence. Local participation is key to the success of these strategies. This research applies connectivity and hydrological efficiency analyses to support local water capture and soil restoration strategies in four marginalized indigenous communities in the tropical region of Mexico. We used the connectivity index (IC) and lateral hydrological efficiency index (LHEI) to identify plots where the configuration of landscape elements favors water and sediment transfer and priority areas for intervention. We analyzed 39 water capture and soil restoration infrastructures through satellite imagery to determine the water persistence (WP) and used correlation analysis and regression trees to identify significant correlations between WP and IC/LHEI values. The data were shared with local actors through participatory workshops, and we identified 11 intervention points with similar IC/LHEI characteristics in collaboration with community residents. This approach highlighted the utility of hydrological connectivity analysis to strengthen decision-making focused on food production systems and ecosystem restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Eco-symbiotic complementarity" refers to mechanisms of reciprocal support among people settled in different ecological zones to access zone-specific useful products. We evaluated eco-symbiotic complementarity and how socio-spatial marginality influences the exchange of natural products between Nahua communities in the municipality of Coyomeapan and the nearest markets in the Sierra Negra of Puebla, Mexico. Through ethnobotanical interviews, we documented 191 useful morphospecies of plants and fungi, 136 of them sold in the municipal market. β diversity analyses showed that most traded morphospecies were specific to the predominant vegetation type of the study communities. We established that plants, including cultivated crops, exhibit complementarity patterns by commercialization, while fungi do not through an examination of exchange networks. Communities' degree of marginalization influences their traded products specialization and the scope of their trade routes. The diversity of ecosystems favors a complementarity network that persists through the municipal market and increases the availability of resources for people inhabiting them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2007 many developing countries have laid groundwork for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and sustainable management and conservation of forests (REDD +) under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). REDD + is aimed at incentivizing forest conservation and management in developing countries through policy programmers and local projects, which should in theory enhance the participation of very diverse actors in forest policy and governance. Here we explore the early years of REDD + in Mexico focusing on the alleged "participatory" nature of the REDD + initiative. Based on interviews and field observations with those involved in drafting the REDD + national strategy and in the implementation of small-scale pilot project activities, we investigate the meaning of participation for REDD + actors, their aspirations in this regard, and how procedural justice issues are being considered in early policy implementation. We demonstrate that the process set in motion to draft the strategy did not sufficiently involve sub-national governance levels, thus reducing the legitimacy of REDD + efforts, particularly in rural communities. We suggest that rural local actors should be further involved in REDD + decision-making forums, be provided with more information for a good understanding of REDD + implementation (e.g., pilot projects), and most importantly, be given a real chance to implement REDD + activities grounded on their own institutions and land-use practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystem restoration is gaining momentum worldwide, but restoration projects frequently fall short of addressing the human dimension, notably through the involvement of local people. While social participation has been recognized to have a fundamental role in the success and sustainability of forest management projects, it is frequently not incorporated into restoration project planning. We gathered responses from a national assessment program regarding the status of terrestrial restoration projects in Mexico. We found that most of these projects were limited to the use of a local short-term work force in tree planting activities and were designed to alleviate short term local socioeconomic tensions, indicating that effective social participation is not well understood by managers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coordinated with excavations at two prehispanic sites in the eastern arm of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, we documented a diversity of economically useful plants at both localities. Many plants that abound at El Palmillo and the Mitla Fortress are used locally as food, medicine, and in ritual activities. These hilltop settlements were abandoned during the prehispanic era and never resettled, leaving relict floral communities that were once tended by their prehispanic inhabitants. A comparison of plant communities at El Palmillo, the Mitla Fortress, and other locales in the Valley of Oaxaca illustrates the higher incidence of xerophytic plants in the drier eastern (Tlacolula) arm of the valley, with the greatest abundance in archaeological contexts. These findings affirm the importance of a broad array of succulents (especially Agave spp.), yucca, and cacti for the region's inhabitants, thereby helping account for the dense prehispanic populations that resided there. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangroves provide multiple valuable environmental services, including their high potential for the sequestration of blue carbon. However, mangrove conservation is socially demanding. Through a spatiotemporal analysis of the inhabitants of this dynamic coastal ecosystem in Mexico, we found that the numbers of small settlements within mangroves increased during the study period despite a decline in mangrove stands and in the human populations inhabiting them. Extended rural developments have been banished to external buffer areas, whereas near-subsistence hamlets are increasingly occupying mangrove forest. The ability of mangroves to sequester atmospheric blue carbon relies on regional socioeconomic patterns and stressors that should be considered in the development of mangrove conservation initiatives. Our study enables identification of potential areas of research — e.g., forestry buffer zones, social exclusion, permanent settlements, and integral monitoring — that can incorporate the social dimensions of blue carbon conservation into the political and research agendas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on several plant species in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico including maple, helecho, and maguey, with topics including the uses of several plant species, the plant diversity, and the plant species used for food and seasoning.

This research analyzes four ongoing water conflicts in Jalisco state, Mexico, through the lens of constitutionality. Constitutionality refers to a bottom-up institution building process based on the activation of emic perceptions of people who are often marginalized in policymaking, as well as on alliances with external actors, with the aim of achieving recognition by the state of self-created institutions. Results show that the constitutionality concept helps to link analysis of local people’s resistance movements against top-down water policies with an emerging process of institutional innovation that aims for more sustainable water governance. Local institutional innovations embody the principles of water justice; these are recognized by the state as being part of its own Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) policy, and thus find their way into state policy arenas. This analysis provided the basis for the formulation of a conceptual framework that integrates water conflicts, water justice, and IWRM into the concept of constitutionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roadside litter is an ever-present human-environmental issue in Mexico, yet material estimates do not exist for rural places. This study estimates roadside litter, by abundance, weight, and class, and examines public perceptions of litter in the rural municipio of Coxcatlán, Puebla, Mexico. During fieldwork, ten study sites were selected, cleaned, and sampled periodically to estimate the generation rate of garbage. A household survey was conducted using participatory risk mapping in 433 households across the study area to gauge concern over litter. Litter and dumping are substantial concerns for households while generation rates along Coxcatlán's roadsides are lower than most estimates for U.S. roadsides, highlighting the importance of perception of an environmental issue amid its empirically-derived reality. Results are contextualized within the broader framework of current and potential governance and management in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oaxaca is one of the most biologically and culturally diverse states in Mexico, which is in turn a world region of megadiversity. We document the rich avifauna of two indigenous Zapotec communities, San Miguel Tiltepec of the Sierra Norte and San Juan Mixtepec of the Sierra Sur. During several years of periodic ethnobiological field research in these communities, we have recorded a total of 313 species: 208 in San Miguel and 191 in San Juan (just 26.5 % of the total for both communities are shared), a list that includes approximately 40 % of endemic species and approximately 29 % of species of special concern known from the state of Oaxaca. The two communities contrast notably in their habitats but share deep roots in their local landscapes and traditions of conservative management of biological resources within their municipal boundaries. We also recorded data on Zapotec names and cultural beliefs and practices regarding birds and noted community attitudes and administrative practices that for centuries have sustained a rich mosaic of critical avian habitats. We suggest that indigenous communities in Mexico and elsewhere, given certain preconditions, may provide critical human resources for biodiversity conservation in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The traditional management systems of the Mixteca Alta Region of Oaxaca, Mexico offer historical lessons about resilience to changes and variability in climate. We interviewed small farmers to inquire about the dynamics of abandonment and persistence of a traditional management system known as cajete maize. The previous generation had sown cajete maize more extensively across the landscape, but farmers increasingly relegated it to high elevation, frost prone agricultural environments that were less suited for seasonal maize. We interpret farmers' narratives of changing cropping systems from a perspective of general agroecological resilience. The most recent years presented increasingly extreme climatic and socioeconomic hardships: increased temperatures, delayed rainy seasons, reduced capacity of soils to retain soil moisture, changing cultural norms, and reduced rural labor. Transformative change is required to develop novel cropping systems and complementary activities to agriculture that will allow for farming to be sustained in the face of these challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored the association of demographic and socio-economic attributes of Mixtecs from Oaxaca, Mexico with their traditional knowledge (TK) of native oak forest plants. We conducted 316 semi-structured interviews on the use of 106 species. We used multivariate analyses to explore the association of two TK indicators with the following respondent attributes: municipality, age, gender, native language, education, and contact with other cultures. All plants surveyed had at least one use. Forage, firewood, food and medicine were the most popular. At local scale, municipalities with the highest proportion of native language speakers, the lowest levels of education and access to household facilities had the highest TK scores. At individual scale, TK was significantly associated with all the socio-economic variables tested. Men and women tend to use native plants in different ways. Acculturation is eroding TK, but TK is still vast and plays a significant role in the Mixtecs' livelihood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasions of bracken fern, Pteridium aquilinum, are an important source of agricultural degradation in many tropical areas. We present a case study of apparent historical degradation of agricultural land which, combined with recent conservation measures, may have created new pressures on food production. Our study of two communities in the Chinantla region, Oaxaca, Mexico is based on interviews and documentation of low farmer awareness of the anthropogenic origins of bracken fern invasions, local knowledge of control techniques and the social-ecological implications of bracken degraded areas. A model for a potential participatory restoration project based on ongoing collective action processes in the communities is proposed. Financial support is needed to incentivize farmers to participate in restoration efforts, to recover productive lands and improve local livelihoods. Agricultural restoration efforts would contribute to sustainable multifunctional landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discussions of maize agriculture in Mexico often treat 'maize' as a uniform commodity, sold in a relatively homogeneous market, and for which there is a single, 'economically rational' production strategy. Based on qualitative research on maize value chains, we suggest that this unitary notion entails significant oversimplifications. We offer a heuristic model of farm-size related 'profitability crossover,' based on observations of highland maize varieties' roles within a series of farm-cycle opportunities and constraints. We suggest that while improved maize varieties may be profitable for large-scale farms taking advantage of economies of scale, landrace cultivation may offer advantages to small- to medium-scale farmers, who utilize a diverse range of input strategies, and sell their products in specialty markets. Understanding maize agriculture as a multi-product and multi-market pursuit rather than uniform commodity production would add greater depth to policy and academic debates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mexico's 1992 agrarian counter-reforms opened up the country's vast network of common property regimes, known as ejidos, to the possibility of privatization. This study investigates the relationship between dynamic common property regimes and deforestation in the wake of policy reform among eight ejidos in southeastern Mexico. Using institutional analyses, land use/land cover change (LULCC) analyses and a Forest Dependency Index, we examine how land tenure arrangements relate to land use and forest cover change patterns. We demonstrate that informally privatized ejidos had larger individual landholdings, more land in use, and higher rates of deforestation. Commonly-held ejidos exhibited lower deforestation rates and, in some cases, forests provided economic benefits via community forest management. However, forest dependency did not correlate with low deforestation rates, suggesting alternative pathways for conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addressing global fisheries overexploitation requires better understanding of how small-scale fishing communities in developing countries limit access to fishing grounds. We analyze the performance of a system based on individual licenses and a common property-rights regime in their ability to generate incentives for self-governance and conservation of fishery resources. Using a qualitative before-after-control-impact approach, we compare two neighbouring fishing communities in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Both were initially governed by the same permit system, are situated in the same ecosystem, use similar harvesting technology, and have overharvested similar species. One community changed to a common property-right regime, enabling the emergence of access controls and avoiding overexploitation of benthic resources, while the other community, still relies on the permit system. We discuss the roles played by power, institutions, socio-historic, and biophysical factors to develop access controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite complete legal protection, improvements in infrastructure, and market conditions that provide easier access to other protein sources, illegal poaching of sea turtles for consumption in Baja California Sur (BCS), Mexico remains a major threat to their recovery. Few studies have focused on understanding the economic and social drivers behind this activity, which is fundamental to determining best practices for discouraging it. From June 2007 to April 2008 we conducted eight in-depth, semi-structured interviews with sea turtle poachers at five coastal communities in BCS to determine the drivers influencing them. The most prevalent reasons for illegal poaching were direct economic benefits, lack of law enforcement and ease of escape from or bribery of authorities, and strong family tradition. Our results suggest that to reduce illegal poaching it will be necessary to better enforce existing environmental laws, reduce social acceptance of sea turtle hunting throughout the region, educate fishers on the ecological importance of sea turtles, and show fishers direct economic benefits from non-consumptive use of sea turtles, such as ecotourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community forestry offers potential for socioeconomic benefits while maintaining ecosystem services. In Mexico, government and donor efforts to develop this sector focus on issues within forest communities. Often overlooked are effects of external non-government actors (NGOs and foresters) as links or barriers between communities and funding, capacity building, and technical support. To analyze the role of these actors, I analyze household survey and interview data from 11 communities with varying levels of vertical integration of forestry production in states with divergent records of community forestry, Oaxaca and Michoacán. Results suggest that strong community governance is necessary but not sufficient for vertical integration, and strong interactions with non-government actors are critical. These actors, operating within the existing framework of government regulations, have a range of incentives for engaging communities. Availability of these actors motivated by concern for community capacity instead of timber income may be a determinant of community forestry development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study documents labor migration and its impacts on household income, material well-being, and land-use practices in Mexico’s southern Yucatán and examines the relation of labor migration to local forest recovery. Drawing on a 203-household survey in 14 communities, we contrast migrating and non-migrating households, showing that migration earnings substitute for agricultural earnings and that migrating households cultivate significantly less farmland. A larger percentage of migrating households maintain pasture, but, on average, not more hectares. These dynamics are consistent with the decline in deforestation registered in the area for the year 2000. Incipient local forest recovery is considered in light of current forest transition theory, with an examination of three hypothesized paths to forest recovery: economic development, forest scarcity, and smallholder agricultural adjustment. The southern Yucatán case illustrates the need to explicitly incorporate the role of globalizing household economies into forest transition theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the ways both deforestation and conservation are viewed by people of two villages with different ethnic composition located within the biosphere reserve of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. The rain forest is considered to be important, since it provides many resources and environmental benefits. Residents do notice forest degradation, although deforestation is not one of their major concerns. In the mestizo village, 65% of interviewees indicated they felt responsible for deforestation, while only 30% of indigenous villagers felt the same. In both communities, nearly half the respondents see themselves as powerless to take actions to preserve the forest. We analyzed the management plan for the reserve in light of our results, and found authorities’ perceptions differ from that of local communities. This study emphasizes the lack of factual data and common goals for biodiversity conservation. Our work points to the urgency to build conservation efforts that involve the different social actors, who diverge in interests and views, particularly in countries like Mexico, where rich biodiversity regions are also broadly inhabited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of an analysis of the viewpoints of Celestún community members regarding the Ría Celestún Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, are used as the basis for recommendation to improve the community/natural protected area (NPA) relationship. Participant observation was used to record the opinions of 80 people (8–83 years of age) between April and August 2002. Twenty semistructured interviews were held with local young people randomly selected from the participant observation group and their fathers; one interview was held with a municipal officer. Results indicate that the informants perceived a lack of communication between community members and the Reserve concerning its objectives and action areas, minimal community participation in Reserve regulation development, an absence of alternative productive activities and unjustified restriction of natural resources. These perceived conditions can potentially generate conflict between the community and the Reserve administration, preventing fulfillment of the Reserve’s environmental protection mission and negatively affecting community welfare. It is suggested that communication between the Reserve and the community be mutual and free-flowing, that Reserve objectives be identified in conjunction with the community, that community members be included in Reserve activities and administration, that interdisciplinary teams be formed to encourage communication and participation and that alternative productive activities be developed. Particular emphasis is placed on the need to listen to and address the concerns of young people because they will define the community/Reserve relationship in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the history, structure and function, and management of vegetated field margins, particularly hedgerows, in Mexico since the pre-Hispanic period. We then focus on the current agricultural landscape in El Bajío, central Mexico, describing in detail the abundance, composition, and management of existing hedgerows. These vegetated field margins can be traced to the pre-Hispanic period, especially in central Mexico, where Indians planted hedgerows, living fences, and terraces, mainly to prevent erosion. After the Spanish Conquest, some of these structures disappeared, but in many cases, new plant species were incorporated into the remaining field boundaries. Today, vegetated field boundaries are adjacent to crop fields and, in some places, they form networks similar to those seen in Europe. Farmers actively manage hedgerows for a variety of useful products and in so doing provide habitat and dispersal routes for native plants and animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock agrodiversity of Mazahua smallholder ‘campesino’ systems in the highlands of Central Mexico was investigated in the villages of San PabloTlalchichilpa (SPT) and La Concepción Mayorazgo (LCM). An animal inventory of 142 households in the two villages was made, followed by the monthly monitoring of 25 households through interviews and participant observation. Thirteen species of domestic animals were found, with a median of three species per farm. The main species werechickens, donkeys, sheep, cattle, mules, and horses, with some also keeping rabbits, ducks, and pigeons. Draught animals are fundamental. Poultry represents a dynamic asset that provides food, income, and short-term savings. Sheep are medium-term savings, and providestability. Livestock are managed in interaction with crops, providing draught force, manure, and cash, and receiving feed. Livestock are fed weeds of the maize crop and stover dring the dry season. Donkeys and sheep are also grazed on common land and in the fields after harvest. High prices for sheep have meant more flocks with possible detrimental environmental effects. Men usually own the draught animals, although anyone may own animals. Women are commonly owners of small stock and receive animals as wedding presents or inheritance. Other arrangements include shared ownership and borrowing. Livestock and produce may be traded in regional markets but are generally sold locally., Campesinos are aware of unfavorable local terms, but reckon possible benefits do not warrant increased transportation costs and time. The villagers say their animals allow them to meet their needs and remain in their villages while improving their livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Common property regimes may contribute to environmental conservation and offer a complementary institutional model to state-run protected areas. The potential conservation value of common property management is of particular significance in Mexico, where a large majority of forests are held communally. Systems of common property management often exist in a context of close institutional overlap with state institutions. This project assessed the function of a common property regime nested within Lagunas de Montebello National Park (PNLM) in Chiapas, Mexico. We documented forest status and analyzed common property forest management institutions following severe fires that threatened forest conservation. Forests managed by the common property regime are less intact than federal forests, yet still moderately conserved, and many attributes necessary for common property management are functional, despite the recent fire crisis. Yet external authorities contest common property management by local institutions, resulting in limited joint management by the national park and the community. Formalization and expansion of de facto cooperation between the federal and community institutions may enhance forest conservation within PNLM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]