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Motivation: I present a database that contains information on multiple key traits for all 11,744 recognised species of squamates worldwide. The database encompasses key traits and a reasonably comprehensive picture of available public knowledge. I present comprehensive description of the sources and rationale leading to the assignment of each particular trait state for each species. I hope the dataset can serve the scientific community, promote research and understanding of the group, comparisons with other taxa, and assessment of conservation needs. Furthermore, gaps in our knowledge of squamate traits become readily apparent and will hopefully lead to further study and even better knowledge. Main types of variables contained: Morphological, ecological, life history, geographical and conservation‐related traits. Spatial location: Global. Time period: Late Holocene to recent. Major taxa and level of measurement: Squamata, species. Software format: xlsx. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The identification of biogeographical zones has been fundamental in broadscale biodiversity analyses over the last 150 years. If processes underlying bioregionalization, such as climatic differences, tectonics and physical barriers, are consistent across vertebrate clades, we expect that groups with more similar ecological characteristics would show more similar bioregions. Lack of data has so far hampered the delineation of global bioregions for reptiles. Therefore, we integrated comprehensive geographic distribution and phylogenetic data of lepidosaurian reptiles to delineate global reptile bioregions, compare determinants of biogeographical boundaries across terrestrial vertebrates and test whether clades showing similar responses to environmental factors also show more similar bioregions. Location: Global. Time Period: Present. Major Taxa Studied: Reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals. Methods: For reptiles, we used phylogenetic beta diversity to quantify changes in community composition, and hierarchical clustering to identify biogeographic 'realms' and 'regions'. Then, we assessed the determinants of biogeographical boundaries using spatially explicit regression models, testing the effect of climatic factors, physical barriers and tectonics. Bioregions of reptiles were compared to those of other vertebrate clades by testing the overall similarity of the spatial structure of bioregions, and the match of the position of biogeographical boundaries. Results: For reptiles, we identified 24 evolutionarily unique regions, nested within 14 realms. Biogeographical boundaries of reptiles were related to both climatic factors and past tectonic movements. Bioregions were very consistent across vertebrate clades. Bioregions of reptiles and mammals showed the highest similarity, followed by reptiles/birds and mammals/birds while amphibian bioregions were less similar to those of the other clades. Main Conclusions: The overall high similarity among bioregions suggests that bioregionalization was affected by similar underlying processes across terrestrial vertebrates. Nevertheless, clades with different eco‐physiological characteristics respond somewhat differently to the same environmental factors, resulting in similar but not identical regionalizations across vertebrate clades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: A decline in body size has been proposed as a universal response to global warming, but this is often questioned. We describe and characterize recent morphological changes in the avifauna of Israel as a whole and test several hypotheses regarding their cause. Location: Israel. Time period: 1950–2020. Major taxa studied: Aves. Methods: We analysed the morphology of 7,981 museum specimens. For each of the 106 species, we calculated the rate of change in mass, head and body length, wing length and approximate relative surface area, both over time and as a function of temperature anomaly (the difference between temperatures in a given year and the interannual average). We used phylogenetic generalized linear mixed models (PGLMMs) to determine trends and their relationship to the ecology of species. Results: Over the last 70 years there have been consistent changes through time in mass, length and surface area‐to‐volume ratio. Mass decreased by 18.3%, length increased by 5.1%, and surface area‐to‐volume ratio increased by 28.9%. The increase in the ratio of surface area to volume through time corresponds to a 12.2% increase per degree Celsius of warming. In contrast, changes in wing length were few and inconsistent. Most species changed in either mass or length, but seldom in both. The effect of rising temperature on morphology was roughly an order of magnitude stronger than the effect of a comparable geographical difference in habitat temperature. Changes were modulated by migratory habits but not explained by human commensalism or diet. Main conclusions: A decrease in mass and increase in length are widespread, both leading to higher relative surface area. Results conform with predicted responses to global warming, but not with any of our other tested hypotheses. If warming is the driver of these changes, the diverging responses observed between different species might represent different solutions to solve a common problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Geographic range size varies greatly across species. Climate, along with aspects of a species' biology, may influence its spatial extent. We investigate intrinsic and extrinsic predictors of range size in Australian skinks. We predicted that larger body size, longer limbs, and larger clutch sizes would be associated with larger ranges, and that ranges would be larger in colder, more arid, and more seasonal climates. Location: Mainland Australia. Taxon: Skinks (Scincidae). Methods: We test for climatic and geographic correlates of range size of Australian skink species (417 of 462 described species), as well as investigate the effects of body size and clutch size (259 species). We compare detailed morphological measurements of 1,324 specimens across nine pairs of widespread and narrow‐ranged congeneric species to investigate the roles of intrinsic (body size, clutch size, morphology) and extrinsic (mean temperature and precipitation) factors in determining range size. Results: In the broader analysis, large range sizes were associated with the presence of fully developed limbs, low precipitation seasonality, high temperatures, and high precipitation. Ranges of species traversing the Great Dividing Range are larger by an order of magnitude than those east of the range, with western ranges being intermediate. Affinity to specific biomes explained less variation than climatic variables. For the nine species pairs, wide‐ranging species share similar morphologies and clutch sizes with overlapping narrow‐ranging congeners, but generally inhabit more arid regions. Main conclusions: We found several extrinsic, but few intrinsic, factors were correlated with range size. The narrow mesic belts in Australia compared with the extensive expanse of arid and semi‐arid regions may explain why desert species have larger ranges. This interpretation agrees with the notion that the size of the domain, here a climatic domain rather than a physical one, may exert strong influence on species' range sizes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation: The understanding of physiological adaptations, of evolutionary radiations and of ecological responses to global change urges for global, comprehensive databases of the functional traits of extant organisms. The ability to maintain an adequate water balance is a critical functional property influencing the resilience of animal species to climate variation. In terrestrial or semi‐terrestrial organisms, total water loss includes a significant contribution from evaporative water loss (EWL). The analysis of geographic and phylogenetic variation in EWL rates must however account for differences in methods and potential confounding factors, which influence standard measures of whole‐organism water loss. We compiled the global and standardized SquamEWL database of total, respiratory and cutaneous EWL for 325 species and subspecies of squamate reptiles (793 samples and 2,536 estimates) from across the globe. An extensive set of companion data and annotations associated with the EWL measurements of potential value for future investigation, including metabolic rate data, is provided. We present preliminary descriptive statistics for the compiled data, discuss gaps and biases, and identify promising avenues to update, expand and explore this database. Main types of variables contained: Standard water loss rates, geographic data, metabolic rates. Spatial location: Global. Time period: Data were obtained from extant species and were collected between 1945 and 2020. Major taxa: Reptilia, Squamata including lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians. Level of measurements: Individual samples of animals from the same species, locality, age class and sex category. Software format: csv. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The diversity of brood size across animal species exceeds the diversity of most other life‐history traits. In some environments, reproductive success increases with brood size, whereas in others it increases with smaller broods. The dominant hypothesis explaining such diversity predicts that selection on brood size varies along climatic gradients, creating latitudinal fecundity patterns. Another hypothesis predicts that diversity in fecundity arises among species adapted to different microhabitats within assemblages. A more recent hypothesis concerned with the consequences of these evolutionary processes in the era of anthropogenic environmental change predicts that low‐fecundity species might fail to recover from demographic collapses caused by rapid environmental alterations, making them more susceptible to extinctions. These hypotheses have been addressed predominantly in endotherms and only rarely in other taxa. Here, we address all three hypotheses in amphibians globally. Location: Global. Time period: Present. Major taxa studied: Class Amphibia. Methods: Using a dataset spanning 2,045 species from all three amphibian orders, we adopt multiple phylogenetic approaches to investigate the association between brood size and climatic, ecological and phenotypic predictors, and according to species conservation status. Results: Brood size increases with latitude. This tendency is much stronger in frogs, where temperature seasonality is the dominant driver, whereas salamander fecundity increases towards regions with more constant rainfall. These relationships vary across continents but confirm seasonality as the key driver of fecundity. Ecologically, nesting sites predict brood size in frogs, but not in salamanders. Finally, we show that extinction risk increases consistently with decreasing fecundity across amphibians, whereas body size is a "by‐product" correlate of extinction, given its relationship with fecundity. Main conclusions: Climatic seasonality and microhabitats are primary drivers of fecundity evolution. Our finding that low fecundity increases extinction risk reinforces the need to refocus extinction hypotheses based on a suggested role for body size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Our understanding of the biological strategies employed by species to cope with challenges posed by aridity is still limited. Despite being sensitive to water loss, bats successfully inhabit a wide range of arid lands. We here investigated how functional traits of bat assemblages vary along the global aridity gradient to identify traits that favour their persistence in arid environments. Location: Global. Time period: Contemporary. Major taxa studied: Bats. Methods: We mapped the assemblage‐level averages of four key bat traits describing wing morphology, echolocation and body size, based on a grid of 100‐km resolution and a pool of 915 bat species, and modelled them against aridity values. To support our results, we conducted analyses also at the species level to control for phylogenetic autocorrelation. Results: At the assemblage level, we detected a rise in values of aspect ratio, wing loading and forearm length, and a decrease in echolocation frequency with increasing aridity. These patterns were consistent with trends detected at the species level for all traits. Main conclusions: Our findings show that trait variation in bats is associated with the aridity gradient and suggest that greater mobility and larger body size are advantageous features in arid environments. Greater mobility favours bats' ability to track patchy and temporary resources, while the reduced surface‐to‐volume ratio associated with a larger body size is likely to reduce water stress by limiting cutaneous evaporation. These findings highlight the importance of extending attention from species‐specific adaptations to broad scale and multispecies variation in traits when investigating the ability of species to withstand arid conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Climatic variation has long been regarded as a primary source of morphological variation. However, there is mixed support for the adherence of reptiles to ecogeographical hypotheses, such as Bergmann's rule (body size decreases with temperature) and Allen's rule (limb length increases with temperature). We quantified body and limb morphology among the diverse Australian gecko fauna (4 families, 30 genera, 226 of the 231 described species) to investigate environmental correlates of morphological variation in this radiation. Location: Australia. Major taxa studied: Geckos (Squamata: Gekkota; the families Gekkonidae, Carphodactylidae, Diplodactylidae and Pygopodidae). Methods: We measured 20 external features of ethanol‐preserved museum specimens. We investigated whether principal component axes of morphology were correlated with three key environmental variables, and the microhabitat occupied by each species. Results: Morphology varied greatly among Australian gecko families and genera, although there was a strong phylogenetic signal in morphology. After accounting for phylogeny, morphology was correlated with a species' microhabitat use. Saxicolous species and species with variable microhabitat requirements (i.e., generalists) had larger body dimensions than terrestrial species. Saxicolous species also had longer proportional forelimbs and hindlimbs than terrestrial species. Main conclusions: Our results highlight the importance of phylogeny and microhabitat use in shaping the morphology of Australian geckos. We find little evidence that Australian geckos adhere to Bergmann's rule or Allen's rule, suggesting that these ecogeographical hypotheses provide limited insight into the adaptive potential of lizard species to altered environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Issue: Sexual size dimorphism is thought to vary in a predictable manner with overall body size, a pattern named "Rensch's rule". The rule is thought to suggest different predictions for taxa with female‐ and male‐biased dimorphism. This leaves taxa where both types of dimorphism are common in limbo. Rensch's rule is usually estimated using the reduced major axis (RMA) slope of a regression of male size on female size. A slope steeper than one shows support for the rule. Evidence: We show that the predictions of Rensch's rule for male‐ and female‐biased taxa are, in fact, the same and offer a unified definition of the rule. Using numerical examples and data from the literature, we show that RMA and ordinary least squares (OLS) methods of line fitting can produce conflicting results, suggesting that RMA is a less conservative way to test the rule. Conclusion: We recommend that both line‐fitting methods are used to estimate Rensch's rule, with strong support being claimed only when the results of both agree with each other. Alternatively, we suggest that tests are conducted in a way that agrees with the definition of the rule (i.e., that size dimorphism is regressed on the mean size of males and females of the species). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: A central question in ecology has been that of why animal home ranges scale more steeply with body size than do metabolic rates. Yet, the generality of this notion has scarcely been tested in non‐model species like ectotherms, which have lower metabolic requirements than endotherms and which may, therefore, have different home range area requirements. Our aim was to examine how home range area scales with body size in snakes and to shed light on how other factors may shape home range area requirements in an understudied group of ectotherms. Location: Global. Time period: 1984–2018. Major taxon studied: Serpents. Methods: We compiled and analysed a dataset of snake home ranges from the literature to evaluate how body size, sex, climate, foraging ecology, and biogeographic factors shape home range area requirements. Results: Home range area scaled more gradually with body size in snakes (log‐linear slope of simple linear regression 0.72 with 95% confidence interval 0.48–0.96) than has been reported for mammals and birds, and instead more closely followed the scaling of metabolic rates with body size. Male snakes had larger home ranges than females and this difference increased as temperature increased at a study site, possibly from mate‐searching behaviour of males and greater ease reaching optimal body temperatures in warmer areas. Finally, home range area scaled more steeply for snakes that forage actively than for those that rely on sit‐and‐wait ambush foraging, a reflection of their foraging ecology. Main conclusions: Our results question the general notion that animal home range areas scale more steeply with body size than does metabolism. Key distinctions in the energy demands of endotherms and ectotherms and their responses to those demands give rise to differing home range area requirements. More attention to non‐model species is needed when creating and evaluating ecological theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: We test whether geographical variation in the length of appendages in rodent species follows predictions of Allen's rule (a positive relationship between appendage length and temperature) at a broad taxonomic scale (order Rodentia). We also test whether the applicability of this rule varies based on the unit of analysis (species or assemblage), the appendage examined (tail, hind foot, ear), body size, occupied habitat, geographical range size, life mode and saltatorial ability. Location: World‐wide. Time period: Current. Major taxa studied: Rodents (order Rodentia). Methods: We assembled data on the morphology, ecology and phylogeny for ≤ 2,212 rodent species, representing c. 86% of all the described rodent species and c. 95% of the described genera. We tested the predicted Allen's rule associations among size‐corrected appendage lengths and both latitudinal and climatic variables (temperature and precipitation). We applied a cross‐species approach based on phylogenetic regressions and a cross‐assemblage approach based on spatial regressions in equal‐area 1.5° grid cells. Results: Support for Allen's rule was greatest for the tail and was stronger across assemblages than across species. We detected a negative relationship between tail length and (absolute) latitude, which was accounted for by a positive association between tail length and temperature of the coldest month. This association was greatest in desert species. In addition, we observed a negative relationship between ear length and precipitation. Main conclusions: In rodents, Allen's rule is confirmed only for tails, and this association seems to be driven by adaptation to the cold, rather than warm temperatures. Habitat type seems to influence conformity to this rule. Conformity to Allen's rule is likely to be the result of complex evolutionary trade‐offs between temperature regulation and other essential species traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Clutch size is a key life‐history trait. In lizards, it ranges over two orders of magnitude. The global drivers of spatial and phylogenetic variation in clutch have been extensively studied in birds, but such tests in other organisms are lacking. To test the generality of latitudinal gradients in clutch size, and their putative drivers, we present the first global‐scale analysis of clutch sizes across lizard taxa. Location: Global. Time period: Recent. Major taxa studied: Lizards (Reptilia, Squamata, Sauria). Methods: We analysed clutch‐size data for over 3,900 lizard species, using phylogenetic generalized least‐square regression to study the relationships between clutch sizes and environmental (temperature, precipitation, seasonality, primary productivity, insularity) and ecological factors (body mass, insularity, activity times, and microhabitat use). Results: Larger clutches are laid at higher latitudes and in more productive and seasonal environments. Insular taxa lay smaller clutches on average. Temperature and precipitation per se are unrelated to clutch sizes. In Africa, patterns differ from those on other continents. Lineages laying small fixed clutches are restricted to low latitudes. Main conclusions: We suggest that the constraint imposed by a short activity season, coupled with abundant resources, is the main driver of large‐clutch evolution at high latitudes and in highly seasonal regions. We hypothesize that such conditions – which are unsuitable for species constrained to laying multiple small clutches – may limit the distribution of fixed‐clutch taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim was to determine how reptile populations respond to anthropogenic habitat modification and determine whether species traits and environmental factors influence such responses. Location: Global. Time period: 1981–2018. Major taxa studied: Squamata. Methods: We compiled a database of 56 studies reporting how habitat modification affects reptile abundance and calculated standardized mean differences in abundance (Hedges' g). We used Bayesian meta‐analytical models to test whether responses to habitat modification depended on body size, clutch size, reproductive mode, habitat specialization, range size, disturbance type, vegetation type, temperature and precipitation. Results: Based on 815 effect sizes from 376 species, we found an overall negative effect of habitat modification on reptile abundance (mean Hedges' g = −0.43, 95% credible intervals = −0.61 to −0.26). Reptile abundance was, on average, one‐third lower in modified compared with unmodified habitats. Small range sizes and small clutch sizes were associated with more negative responses to habitat modification, although the responses were weak and the credible intervals overlapped zero. We detected no effects of body size, habitat specialization, reproductive mode (egg‐laying or live‐bearing), temperature or precipitation. Some families exhibited more negative responses than others, although overall there was no phylogenetic signal in the data. Mining had the most negative impacts on reptile abundance, followed by agriculture, grazing, plantations and patch size reduction, whereas the mean effect of logging was neutral. Main conclusions: Habitat modification is a key cause of reptile population declines, although there is variability in responses both within and between species, families and vegetation types. The effect of disturbance type appeared to be related to the intensity of habitat modification. Ongoing development of environmentally sustainable practices that ameliorate anthropogenic impacts is urgently needed to prevent declines in reptile populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The 'rate‐of‐living' theory predicts that life expectancy is a negative function of the rates at which organisms metabolize. According to this theory, factors that accelerate metabolic rates, such as high body temperature and active foraging, lead to organismic 'wear‐out'. This process reduces life span through an accumulation of biochemical errors and the build‐up of toxic metabolic by‐products. Although the rate‐of‐living theory is a keystone underlying our understanding of life‐history trade‐offs, its validity has been recently questioned. The rate‐of‐living theory has never been tested on a global scale in a phylogenetic framework, or across both endotherms and ectotherms. Here, we test several of its fundamental predictions across the tetrapod tree of life. Location: Global. Time period: Present. Major taxa studied: Land vertebrates. Methods: Using a dataset spanning the life span data of 4,100 land vertebrate species (2,214 endotherms, 1,886 ectotherms), we performed the most comprehensive test to date of the fundamental predictions underlying the rate‐of‐living theory. We investigated how metabolic rates, and a range of factors generally perceived to be strongly associated with them, relate to longevity. Results: Our findings did not support the predictions of the rate‐of‐living theory. Basal and field metabolic rates, seasonality, and activity times, as well as reptile body temperatures and foraging ecology, were found to be unrelated to longevity. In contrast, lower longevity across ectotherm species was associated with high environmental temperatures. Main conclusions: We conclude that the rate‐of‐living theory does not hold true for terrestrial vertebrates, and suggest that life expectancy is driven by selection arising from extrinsic mortality factors. A simple link between metabolic rates, oxidative damage and life span is not supported. Importantly, our findings highlight the potential for rapid warming, resulting from the current increase in global temperatures, to drive accelerated rates of senescence in ectotherms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Lizard assemblages vary greatly in taxonomic, ecological and phenotypic diversity, yet the mechanisms that generate and maintain these patterns at a macroecological scale are not well understood. We aimed to characterize the ecological and environmental drivers of species richness patterns in the context of macroecological theory for 10 independent lizard radiations. Location: Global. Time period: Present day. Major taxa: Lizards. Methods: We analysed patterns of species and functional trait diversity in 10 ecologically distinct and widely distributed clades encompassing nearly all known lizard species. Using recently published spatial, phylogenetic, and functional trait datasets, we built spatially explicit structural equation models to ask whether species richness was directly or indirectly related to functional divergence or convergence within communities, and with features of the environment, including measures of productivity, complexity and harshness. Results: Our results show that high species richness is achieved via different pathways in different lizard clades, with both functionally divergent and convergent assemblages harbouring high diversity in different clades. More generally, we also find common, positive effects of temperature, productivity and topography on species richness within lizard clades. Main conclusions: Thermal constraints, topographic complexity and spatial structuring of functional diversity help explain the presence of highly diverse lizard assemblages, suggesting the importance of environmental filters in shaping present‐day diversity and assemblage structure. Our results show how different pathways to high richness in different clades have contributed to the overall global pattern of species richness in reptiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Isolation is a key factor in island biology. It is usually defined as the distance to the geographically nearest mainland, but many other definitions exist. We explored how testing different isolation indices affects the inference of impacts of isolation on faunal characteristics. We focused on land bridge islands and compared the relationships of many spatial and temporal (i.e., through time) isolation indices with community‐, population‐ and individual‐level characteristics (species richness, population density and body size, respectively). Location: Aegean Sea islands, Greece. Time period: Current. Taxon: Many animal taxa. Methods: We estimated 21 isolation indices for 205 islands and recorded species richness data for 15 taxa (invertebrates and vertebrates). We obtained body size data for seven lizard species and population density data for three. We explored how well indices predict each characteristic, in each taxon, by conducting a series of ordinary least squares regressions (controlling for island area when needed) and a meta‐analysis. Results: Isolation was significantly (and negatively) associated with species richness in 10 of 15 taxa. It was significantly (and positively) associated with body size in only one of seven species and was not associated with population density. The effect of isolation on species richness was much weaker than that of island area, regardless of the index tested. Spatial indices generally out‐performed temporal indices, and indices directly related to the mainland out‐performed those related mainly to neighbouring islands. No index was universally superior to others, including the distance to the geographically nearest mainland. Main conclusions: The choice of index can alter our perception of the impacts of isolation on biological patterns. The nearly automatic, ubiquitous use of distance to the geographically nearest mainland misrepresents the complexity of the effects of isolation. We recommend the simultaneous testing of several indices that represent different aspects of isolation, in order to produce more constructive and thorough investigations and avoid imprecise inference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Issue: Lot accession information from natural history collections represents a potentially vital source of large datasets to test biodiversity, biogeography and macroecology hypotheses. But does such information provide an accurate portrayal of the natural world? We review the many types of bias and error intrinsic to museum collection data and consider how these factors may affect their ability to accurately test ecological hypotheses. Evidence: We considered all Texas land snail collections from the two major repositories in the state and compared them with an ecological sample drawn across the same landscape. We found that museum collection localities were biased in favour of regions with higher human population densities and iconic destinations. They also tended to be made during attractive temporal windows. Small, uncharismatic taxa tended to be under‐collected while larger, charismatic species were over‐collected. As a result, for most species it was impossible to use museum lot frequency to accurately predict frequency and abundance in an ecological sample. Species misidentification rate was approximately 20%, while 4% of lots represented more than one species. Errors were spread across the entire shell size spectrum and were present in 75% of taxonomic families. Contingency table analysis documented significant dependence of both misidentification and mixed lot rates upon shell size and family richness. Conclusion: Researchers should limit their use of museum record data to situations where their inherent biases and errors are irrelevant, rectifiable or explicitly considered. At the same time museums should begin incorporating expert specimen verification into their digitization programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Are different fruit colours related to large‐scale patterns of dispersal, distribution and diversification? Here, we investigate this question for the first time, using phylogenetic approaches in the tribe Gaultherieae (Ericaceae). We test relationships between fruit colour and (a) biogeographic dispersal, (b) elevational and latitudinal species distributions and (c) rates of diversification. Location: Global. Time period: Recent to 30 million years ago. Major taxa studied: The plant tribe Gaultherieae in the family Ericaceae (blueberries and relatives). Methods: We estimated a new time‐calibrated phylogeny for Gaultherieae. Data on fruit colours and geographic distributions for each species were compiled from published sources and field observations. Using phylogenetic methods, we estimated major dispersal events across the tree and the most likely fruit colour associated with each dispersal event, and tested whether dispersal between major biogeographic regions was equally likely for different fruit colours, and whether dispersal distances were larger for certain colours. We then tested the relationships between fruit colours and geographic variables (latitude, elevation) and diversification rates. Results: Large‐scale dispersal events were significantly associated with red‐fruited lineages, even though red‐fruited species were relatively uncommon. Further, different fruit colours were associated with different elevations and latitudes (e.g. red at lower elevations, violet at lower latitudes, white at higher elevations). Violet colour was related to increased diversification rates, leading to more violet‐fruited species globally. Main conclusions: Overall, we show that different fruit colours can significantly impact the large‐scale dispersal, distribution and diversification of plant clades. Furthermore, the interplay between biogeography and fruit‐colour evolution seems to generate "taxon cycles" in fruit colour that may drive variation in fruit colour over macroevolutionary time‐scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Variation in body size across animal species underlies most ecological and evolutionary processes shaping local‐ and large‐scale patterns of biodiversity. For well over a century, climatic factors have been regarded as primary sources of natural selection on animal body size, and hypotheses such as Bergmann's rule (the increase of body size with decreasing temperature) have dominated discussions. However, evidence for consistent climatic effects, especially among ectotherms, remains equivocal. Here, we test a range of key hypotheses on climate‐driven size evolution in squamate reptiles across several spatial and phylogenetic scales. Location: Global. Time period: Extant. Major taxa studied: Squamates (lizards and snakes). Methods: We quantified the role of temperature, precipitation, seasonality and net primary productivity as drivers of body mass across ca. 95% of extant squamate species (9,733 spp.). We ran spatial autoregressive models of phylogenetically corrected median mass per equal‐area grid cell. We ran models globally, across separate continents and for major squamate clades independently. We also performed species‐level analyses using phylogenetic generalized least square models and linear regressions of independent contrasts of sister species. Results: Our analyses failed to identify consistent spatial patterns in body size as a function of our climatic predictors. Nearly all continent‐ and family‐level models differed from one another, and species‐level models had low explanatory power. Main conclusions: The global distribution of body mass among living squamates varies independently from the variation in multiple components of climate. Our study, the largest in spatial and taxonomic scale conducted to date, reveals that there is little support for a universal, consistent mechanism of climate‐driven size evolution within squamates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: There is mounting evidence that climate warming can induce morphological changes locally, particularly size reduction. However, the direction of thermal stress may differ between climatic regions. We predicted that morphological response to temperature fluctuations should vary throughout species ranges, depending on the local climate. Hot temperature anomalies are expected to induce size reduction in hot regions where species live close to their upper thermal limit, whereas size stasis (or increase) would be expected in cold regions, where species live close to their lower thermal limit. Location: France (204 sites). Time period: 2000–2014 springs. Major taxa studied: Songbird species (n = 9). Methods: We tested whether the effect of temperature anomalies on juvenile body size varied along an 11 °C thermal gradient. Results: In warmer springs, juveniles were larger overall at the coldest sites, but this effect decreased toward the hottest sites, becoming negative for two species. Main conclusions: Warming should induce body size increases more frequently at the cold edge of species distribution ranges, and rather body size declines at the hot edg. The climate dependency of the effect of weather fluctuations on body size is still under‐acknowledged, and the pattern identified deserves to be investigated over broader climatic gradients and taxonomic coverage. Climate‐driven changes in body size are therefore not uniform across climatic regions and within species ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Longevity is a critical life‐history trait of organisms. Multiple abiotic and biotic factors are thought to exert different selection pressures, resulting in a great variation in species longevity. We examined factors that, according to evolutionary theories of senescence, are thought to be related to extrinsic and intrinsic mortality rates, and thus shape the variation in longevity among amphibians. Location: World‐wide. Time period: Present. Major taxa studied: Amphibia. Methods: We collected literature data on the maximum longevities of 527 amphibian species. Correcting for phylogeny and sample size, we modelled the relationship between amphibian longevity and body size. We also examined the effects of chemical protection, activity period, microhabitat preferences and annual temperature on amphibian longevity. Results: In general, members of larger amphibian species live longer. Body size, however, explained less of the variation in amphibian longevity than it does in mammals and birds. Nocturnal amphibians, species that use poison for defence and those inhabiting cold regions live longer, but microhabitat preferences had little effect. Main conclusions: Our results supported predictions of evolutionary theories of senescence. Large amphibians living in colder environments probably experience slower growth and metabolic rates, reducing intrinsic drivers of mortality and increasing longevity. Moreover, species that reduce extrinsic mortality pressures via chemical protection and nocturnality have increased longevity. Sampling captive animals and sampling more individuals of a species increases the chances of finding older individuals and should be corrected for when studying maximum longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation: over the last 12 years I have been collecting trait and geographic data on lizards. These data could be useful for scientists studying this remarkable reptilian radiation. Furthermore, as published data for some of the less well known species are scarce, I hope this study can initiate a community effort to fill in data gaps. I present geographical, morphological, ecological, physiological and life history data for the 6,657 known species of lizards. I further indicate whether there are phylogenetic data associated with them, and their threat assessment, if they have one. I present descriptive statistics regarding these traits and point to avenues for future research using the dataset. Main types of variable contained: body size, ecological, thermal biology, geographic, phylogenetic and life history data. Spatial location: Global. Time period: data are for species known from living, or recently extinct species. Most underlying data were collected during the 20th and 21st centuries. Major taxa: Reptilia, Sauria (Squamata, including Amphisbaenia but excluding Serpentes). Level of measurement: species. Software format: csv. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aim: Animal body sizes are often remarkably variable across islands, but despite much research we still have a poor understanding of both the patterns and the drivers of body size evolution. Theory predicts that interspecific competition and predation pressures are relaxed on small, remote islands, and that these conditions promote body size evolution. We studied body size variation across multiple insular populations of 16 reptile species co‐occurring in the same archipelago and tested which island characteristics primarily drive body size evolution, the nature of the common patterns, and whether co‐occurring species respond in a similar manner to insular conditions. Location: Aegean Sea islands. Time period: 1984–2016. Major taxa studied: Reptiles. Methods: We combined fieldwork, museum measurements and a comprehensive literature survey to collect data on nearly 10,000 individuals, representing eight lizard and eight snake species across 273 islands. We also quantified a large array of predictors to assess directly the effects of island area, isolation (both spatial and temporal), predation and interspecific competition on body size evolution. We used linear models and meta‐analyses to determine which predictors are informative for all reptiles, for lizards and snakes separately, and for each species. Results: Body size varies with different predictors across the species we studied, and patterns differ within families and between lizards and snakes. Each predictor influenced body size in at least one species, but no general trend was recovered. As a group, lizards are hardly affected by any of the predictors we tested, whereas snake size generally increases with area and with competitor and predator richness, and decreases with isolation. Main conclusions: No factor emerges as a predominant driver of Aegean reptile sizes. This contradicts theories of general body size evolutionary trajectories on islands. We conclude that overarching generalizations oversimplify patterns and processes of reptile body size evolution on islands. Instead, species’ autecology and island particularities interact to drive the course of size evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Lizards are ancestrally diurnal, and most of them remain so. Nocturnality is common among lizards, but the environmental factors associated with lizard nocturnal activity are still unknown. Here, we contrasted the ambient temperature and productivity hypotheses, where we predicted that cold temperatures will pose a stonger limit to nocturnal species richness than diurnal lizards. Moreover, we contrasted the relative importance of annual, day and night mean temperatures to pinpoint the drivers of nocturnal lizard richness. Location Mainland Eurasia. Methods We collected distribution range and activity time data for all 1,113 lizard species found throughout mainland Eurasia. This represents the largest geographical scope to date, for studies of lizard species richness. We examined the spatial patterns of nocturnal species richness in relationship to diurnal species richness across environmental gradients of ambient temperature and productivity. Results Nocturnal lizards are richest in the tropics and in deserts, and their richness decreases with latitude. However, nocturnal lizards are absent from the highest latitudes and coldest regions inhabited by lizards. Diurnal and nocturnal lizards respond in a similar manner to climatic factors. Ambient temperature has a strong influence on both, whereas productivity is more tightly related to the proportion of nocturnal species. Main conclusions Nocturnality is widespread among Eurasian lizards. However, nocturnal lizards are absent from invariably cold regions, and low temperatures seem to be a limiting factor for lizard activity period. We suggest that the year-round warm nights of the tropics reduce the cost of being active at night and open the nocturnal niche for many lizards. In hot deserts, the combination of hot days and aridity increases the cost of diurnal activity, whereas nocturnal activity provides a shelter from these extreme conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The species population density-range size relationship posits that locally abundant species are widely distributed. However, this proposed pattern has been insufficiently tested. The few tests conducted were usually limited in scale and gave conflicting results. We tested the generality of the positive population density-range size relationship. We then studied whether similar environmental niche requirements are correlated with range size and with population density to search for mechanisms driving the hypothesized link between population density and range size. Location Worldwide. Methods We collected data on population density, range size and environmental niche for a global dataset of 192 lizard, 893 bird and 350 mammal species. Assessing the relationship between population density and range size and environmental niche parameters, we corrected for phylogenetic relationships, body mass, diet and study area. Results Our findings reveal that density had a weak negative correlation with bird range size and was unrelated to lizard and mammal range size. These trends were consistent at the global scale and across the biogeographical realms. Range size was related to relatively similar environmental niche parameters in all groups. Population density, however, was explained by taxon-specific factors and was therefore unrelated to range size by common causation. Main conclusions We suggest that the positive relationship between population density and range size identified in previous studies might be an artefact arising through incomplete sampling of range sizes. Our results indicate that the mechanisms shaping population density and range size may be independent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Dietary niche breadth has long been hypothesized to decrease towards lower latitudes as the numbers of competitors increase. Geographical variation in niche breadth is also hypothesized to be linked to high ambient energy levels, water availability, productivity and climate stability - reflecting an increased number of available prey taxa. Range size and body size are also hypothesized to be strongly and positively associated with niche breadth. We sought to determine which of these factors is associated with geographical variation in niche breadth across broad spatial scales and thus potentially drive the latitudinal diversity gradient. Location Global. Methods We collated volumetric dietary data for 308 lizard species. For each species, we gathered data on number of sympatric lizard species (a proxy for the number of competitors), annual temperature and precipitation, net primary productivity, seasonality, range size and body size. We examined the relationship between dietary niche breadth and focal parameters using both ordinary and phylogenetic generalized least squares regressions. Results Niche breadth was positively related to annual precipitation, temperature seasonality and range size, and negatively related to body size. Lizard species richness increased towards lower latitudes. Dietary niche breadth, however, was unrelated to parameters reflecting diversity gradients, such as primary productivity, annual temperature, precipitation seasonality and, crucially, the number of potential competitors. Main conclusions Contrary to prevailing ecological theory, competition is unrelated to dietary niche breadth. We found no support for interspecific competition driving the latitudinal diversity gradient. Rather, we found variation in niche breadth to be associated with water availability, climate stability, range size and body size. Our study casts doubt on the common assumption that tropical species are specialists, promoting greater alpha diversity, and on the assumption that the number of sympatric species is reflected in the intensity of interspecific competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim General geographical patterns of insect body size are still a matter of considerable debate, mainly because the annual number of generations (voltinism) and its relationship with body size have largely been ignored. We present the first analyses of voltinism and body size of insect assemblages at a continental scale using lepidopteran and odonate species. We hypothesize that voltinism is strongly driven by environmental conditions and constrains body size on macroecological scales. Location Europe. Methods We compiled the distribution, voltinism and body size of 943 lepidopteran and odonate species within a 50 km × 50 km grid system, thereby presenting a novel method for estimating the body volume of species from digital images. Regressions and structural equation modelling were applied to distinguish the effects of temperature, productivity and season length on mean voltinism and body size within grid cells. We accounted for spatial autocorrelation with autoregressive models and analysed the possible effect of species richness and intraspecific variability. Results Voltinism consistently decreased with latitude for both lepidopterans ( r2 = 0.76) and odonates ( r2 = 0.86), with species having on average fewer generations per year in northern Europe and more generations per year in southern Europe. The effects of temperature, productivity and season length on body size contrasted in sign between lepidopterans and odonates, leading to opposing geographical patterns across Europe. Main conclusions Voltinism in insect assemblages is strongly driven by environmental temperature, and trade-offs between voltinism and body size influence the occurrence of species at macroecological scales. Insects with the ability to extend their generation time over multiple years can overcome this constraint, allowing for a relatively large body size in cold areas. Our results furthermore support the idea that body sizes of terrestrial and aquatic insects form contrasting geographical patterns because they are differently affected by temperature and resource constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim A major Late Quaternary vertebrate extinction event affected mostly large-bodied 'megafauna'. This is well documented in both mammals and birds, but evidence of a similar trend in reptiles is scant. We assess the relationship between body size and Late Quaternary extinction in reptiles at the global level. Location Global. Methods We compile a body size database for all 82 reptile species that are known to have gone extinct during the last 50,000 years and compare them with the sizes of 10,090 extant reptile species (97% of known extant diversity). We assess the body size distributions in the major reptile groups: crocodiles, lizards, snakes and turtles, while testing and correcting for a size bias in the fossil record. We examine geographical biases in extinction by contrasting mainland and insular reptile assemblages, and testing for biases within regions and then globally by using geographically weighted models. Results Extinct reptiles were larger than extant ones, but there was considerable variation in extinction size biases among groups. Extinct lizards and turtles were large, extinct crocodiles were small and there was no trend in snakes. Lizard lineages vary in the way their extinction is related to size. Extinctions were particularly prevalent on islands, with 73 of the 82 extinct species being island endemics. Four others occurred in Australia. The fossil record is biased towards large-bodied reptiles, but extinct lizards were larger than extant ones even after we account for this. Main conclusions Body size played a complex role in the extinction of Late Quaternary reptiles. Larger lizard and turtle species were clearly more affected by extinction mechanisms such as over exploitation and invasive species, resulting in a prevalence of large-bodied species among extinct taxa. Insularity was by far the strongest correlate of recent reptile extinctions, suggesting that size-biased extinction mechanisms are amplified in insular environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Size is one of the most important and obvious traits of an organism. Both small and large sizes have adaptive advantages and disadvantages. Body size-frequency distributions of most large clades are unimodal and right skewed. Species larger than the mean or range midpoint of body sizes are relatively scarce. Theoretical models suggest evolutionary rates are higher in small organisms with short generation times. Therefore diversification rates are usually thought to be maximal at relatively small body sizes. Empirical studies of the rates of molecular evolution and clade diversification, however, have usually indicated that both are unrelated to body size. Furthermore, it has been claimed that because snakes are longer than lizards, the size-frequency distribution of all squamate species is bimodal overall. We examined the shape of the size-frequency distribution of nearly all Squamata and Rhynchocephalia species, and investigated how size affected diversification rates. Location Global. Methods We collected data on maximum body length for 9805 lepidosaur (squamates and the tuatara) species (99.7% of all species) and converted them to mass using clade-specific allometric equations. Using methods that test for relationships between continuous traits and speciation and extinction rates on a large, dated phylogeny (4155 species), we investigated the relationship between diversification rates and body size. Results Living squamates span six orders of magnitude in body size, eight when giant extinct snakes and mosasaurs are included. The body size-frequency distributions of snakes and lizards separately, and of all lepidosaur species combined, are unimodal and right skewed. Nonetheless, we find neither linear nor hump-shaped relationships between size and diversification rates, except in snakes, where speciation and diversification are hump shaped. Main conclusions Despite a clear modality and skew in the body sizes of lepidosaurs, we find little evidence for faster diversification of modal-sized taxa, perhaps implying that larger-sized clades are relatively young. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Islands organisms usually have fewer predator and competitor species than mainland ones. This is thought to result in high population densities on islands. We hypothesize that insular lizards have denser populations than mainland species and that density, in general, is negatively correlated with competitor and predator richness. Location Global. Methods We compared densities of 346 lizard species on islands and the mainland while examining the relationship between density and, predator and competitor richness, primary productivity, seasonality and island area. We controlled for phylogenetic non-independence, body mass and study area, which are known to strongly affect population density. Results Insular populations (especially on snake-free islands) are denser than mainland ones. Mainland populations of lizard species that also inhabit islands were denser than those of species that do not inhabit islands. Population density was the highest on islands with low net primary productivity and was not significantly affected by competitor or predator richness. Moreover, insular populations show high density regardless of island area. Main conclusions We conclude that the ability of mainland species to reach high population densities may increase their chances in reaching and successfully colonizing islands. We postulate that population density may be affected by predator and competitor density rather than by their richness. Density increase on islands may result not from the environmental simplicity of island faunas but through propagule sorting or pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Although most reptiles are oviparous, viviparity is a common mode of reproduction in squamates and has evolved multiple times in different lineages. We test two prevailing hypotheses regarding the biogeography of reptile reproductive modes to evaluate the selective forces driving the evolution of viviparity in snakes. The cold climate hypothesis posits that viviparity is selected for in cold climates, whereas the climatic predictability hypothesis predicts that viviparity is advantageous in seasonal climates. Location Global. Methods We collated detailed distribution maps and reproductive mode data for 2663 species of the world's terrestrial alethinophidian snakes. We studied the relationship between snake reproductive mode and environmental predictors. We applied both an ecological and an evolutionary approach to study snake reproductive mode by performing the analyses at the assemblage level and species level, respectively. We analysed our data at the global and continental scales to learn whether tendencies to viviparity are similar world-wide. Results We found strong support for the cold climate hypothesis and the assumption that viviparity is an adaptation to cold environments. There was little support for the climatic predictability hypothesis. Nonetheless, viviparous species are not restricted to cold environments. Main conclusions We conclude that viviparity is adaptive in cold climates, but not necessarily in unpredictable/seasonal climates. Current distributions may not reflect the climate at the time and place of speciation. We suspect many viviparous snakes inhabiting warm climates are members of lineages that originated in colder regions, and their occurrence in maladaptive environments is a result of phylogenetic conservatism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Longevity is an important life-history trait, directly linked to the core attributes of fitness (reproduction and survival), yet large-scale comparative studies quantifying its implications for the ecology and life history of ectotherms are scarce. We tested the allometry of longevity in squamates and the tuatara, and determined how longevity is related to key environmental characteristics and life-history traits. Predictions based on life-history theory are expected to hold true for ectotherms, similarly to mammals and birds. Location World-wide. Methods We assembled from the literature a dataset of the maximum longevities of more than a thousand squamate species, representing c. 10% of their known species diversity, their phylogenetic relationships and multiple life-history and ecological variables. Correcting for phylogeny, we modelled the link between squamate longevity and both key life-history traits, such as body mass and age at first reproduction, and important environmental factors, such as latitude and primary productivity within species distributional ranges. Results Large-bodied species live for longer than small ones, but body size explains far less of the variance in longevity than it does in mammals and birds. Accounting for body size, squamate brood frequency is negatively correlated with longevity, while age at first reproduction is positively correlated with longevity. This points to a continuum of slow-to-fast life-history strategies. Squamates in high latitudes and cold regions live for longer, probably because a shorter season of activity translates to slower development, older age at first reproduction and hence to increased longevity. Individuals live longer in captivity than in the wild. Herbivorous and omnivorous squamates live for longer than carnivorous ones. We postulate that low-quality nutrition reduces growth rates, promotes a relative decline in reproductive rates and thus prolongs life. Main conclusions Our results support key predictions from life-history theory and suggest that reproducing more slowly and at older ages, being herbivorous and, plausibly, lowering metabolism, result in increased longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]