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Fundamental mode surface wave data have often been used to construct global shear velocity models of the upper mantle under the so-called 'path average approximation', an efficient approach from the computational point of view. With the advent of full-waveform inversion and numerical wavefield computations, such as afforded by the spectral element method, accounting for the effects of the crust accurately becomes challenging. Here, we assess the merits of accounting for crustal and uppermost mantle effects on surface and body waveforms using fundamental mode dispersion data and a smooth representation of the shallow structure. For this we take as reference a model obtained by full-waveform inversion and wavefield computations using the spectral element method, model SEMUCB-WM1 and compare the waveform fits of synthetics to different parts of three component observed teleseismic records, in the period band 32–300 s for body waves and 40–300 s for surface waves and their overtones for three different models. The latter are: a dispersion-only based model (model Disp_20s_iter5), and two models modified from SEMUCB-WM1 by successively replacing the top 200 km (model Merged _200 km) and top 80 km (model Merged _80 km), respectively, by a model constrained solely by fundamental mode surface wave dispersion data between periods of 20 and 150 s. The crustal part of these three models (resp. SEMUCB-WM1) is constrained from dispersion data in the period range 20–60 s (resp. 25–60 s), using the concept of homogenization which is tailored to simplify complex geological features, enhancing the computational efficiency of our seismic modelling. We evaluate the fits to observed waveforms provided by these three models compared to those of SEMUCB-WM1 by computing three component synthetics using the spectral element method for five globally distributed events recorded at 200+stations, using several measures of misfit. While fits to waveforms for model 3 are similar to those for SEMUCB-WM1, the other two models provide increasingly poorer fits as the distance travelled by the corresponding seismic wave increases and/or as it samples deeper in the mantle. In particular, models 1 and 2 are biased towards fast shear velocities, on average. Our results suggest that, given a comparable frequency band, models constructed using fundamental mode surface wave data alone and the path average approximation, fail to provide acceptable fits to the corresponding waveforms. However, the shallow part of such a 3-D radially anisotropic model can be a good starting model for further full waveform inversion using numerical wavefield computations. Moreover, the shallow part of such a model, including its smooth crustal model, and down to a maximum depth that depends on the frequency band considered, can be fixed in full-waveform inversion iterations for deeper structure. This can save significant computational time when higher resolution is sought in the deeper mantle. In the future, additional constraints for the construction of the homogenized model of the crust can be implemented from independent short period studies, either globally or regionally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spectral element method is currently the method of choice for computing accurate synthetic seismic wavefields in realistic 3-D earth models at the global scale. However, it requires significantly more computational time, compared to normal mode-based approximate methods. Source stacking, whereby multiple earthquake sources are aligned on their origin time and simultaneously triggered, can reduce the computational costs by several orders of magnitude. We present the results of synthetic tests performed on a realistic radially anisotropic 3-D model, slightly modified from model SEMUCB-WM1 with three component synthetic waveform 'data' for a duration of 10 000 s, and filtered at periods longer than 60 s, for a set of 273 events and 515 stations. We consider two definitions of the misfit function, one based on the stacked records at individual stations and another based on station-pair cross-correlations of the stacked records. The inverse step is performed using a Gauss–Newton approach where the gradient and Hessian are computed using normal mode perturbation theory. We investigate the retrieval of radially anisotropic long wavelength structure in the upper mantle in the depth range 100–800 km, after fixing the crust and uppermost mantle structure constrained by fundamental mode Love and Rayleigh wave dispersion data. The results show good performance using both definitions of the misfit function, even in the presence of realistic noise, with degraded amplitudes of lateral variations in the anisotropic parameter ξ. Interestingly, we show that we can retrieve the long wavelength structure in the upper mantle, when considering one or the other of three portions of the cross-correlation time series, corresponding to where we expect the energy from surface wave overtone, fundamental mode or a mixture of the two to be dominant, respectively. We also considered the issue of missing data, by randomly removing a successively larger proportion of the available synthetic data. We replace the missing data by synthetics computed in the current 3-D model using normal mode perturbation theory. The inversion results degrade with the proportion of missing data, especially for ξ , and we find that a data availability of 45 per cent or more leads to acceptable results. We also present a strategy for grouping events and stations to minimize the number of missing data in each group. This leads to an increased number of computations but can be significantly more efficient than conventional single-event-at-a-time inversion. We apply the grouping strategy to a real picking scenario, and show promising resolution capability despite the use of fewer waveforms and uneven ray path distribution. Source stacking approach can be used to rapidly obtain a starting 3-D model for more conventional full-waveform inversion at higher resolution, and to investigate assumptions made in the inversion, such as trade-offs between isotropic, anisotropic or anelastic structure, different model parametrizations or how crustal structure is accounted for. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moho determination is an important issue in studying the Earth's interior structure. In accordance with the isostasy-compensation hypothesis in geodesy, it is possible to recover regional or global Moho by employing gravimetric data. The nonlinear property is one of the main difficulties in solving the inverse problem of isostasy. To effectively address this issue, we propose an improved iterative inversion method that combines 3-D integration and linear regularization to achieve an approximate nonlinear solution. To estimate the contributions of different components in the gravity-gradient tensor from the Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE), other than the vertical component, we additionally develop two joint inversion scenarios that utilize diagonal horizontal components and all five non-vertical components. The validating experiments are implemented in Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and its near zone. Simulations and applications illustrate that horizontal responses of Moho undulation are also significant. Yet the off-diagonal components provide minimal contributions, adding only 0.25 km of bias to the joint inversion results. Truncation effects serve as the primary source of systematic errors, resulting in ∼1 km error in vertical inversion results and ∼2.3 km error in joint inversion results. Then, the gravimetric Moho results are compared with CRUST1.0, and they show a generally strong correlation. Differences are obvious at the northern and eastern margins of the plateau. It is maybe due to the local changes in crust–mantle density contrasts. Upwelling of asthenospheric materials and fluid flow in the middle-lower crust are the two main factors. Based on high-precision satellite gravimetry, our study could provide new insights into the tectonic structure of Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: The accuracy and sampling rate of a coseismic displacement and velocity waveform can be improved by fusing Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and strong motion (SM) sensor data with a multirate Kalman filter. However, many studies have shown that the noise in GNSS coseismic waveforms includes coloured noise, and it is challenging to obtain proper GNSS and SM fusion results if the GNSS coloured noise is not accurately represented. In this paper, we propose a coloured noise multirate Kalman filter, which uses a stochastic model for modelling the GNSS coloured noise to achieve an accurate fusion of data from GNSS and SM for different sampling rates. In addition, we also propose an estimation method for the multirate Kalman filter stochastic model under coloured noise to achieve the optimal adaptive fusion of GNSS and SM data. After the reliability of the proposed method was confirmed using Monte Carlo simulations and earthquake engineering data tests, the proposed method was applied to data collected from the 2019 Mw 7.1 Ridgecrest earthquake and 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikoura earthquake. The test results show that the proposed method can effectively fuse GNSS and SM data and accurately obtain broadband coseismic displacement and velocity waveforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of seismic anisotropy at the base of the Earth's mantle is well established, but there is no consensus on the deformation mechanisms in lower mantle minerals that could explain it. Strong anisotropy in magnesium post-perovskite (pPv) has been invoked, but different studies disagree on the dominant slip systems at play. Here, we aim to further constrain this by implementing the most recent results from atomistic models and high-pressure deformation experiments, coupled with a realistic composition and a 3-D geodynamic model, to compare the resulting deformation-induced anisotropy with seismic observations of the lowermost mantle. We account for forward and reverse phase transitions from bridgmanite (Pv) to pPv. We find that pPv with either dominant (001) or (010) slip can both explain the seismically observed anisotropy in colder regions where downwellings turn to horizontal flow, but only a model with dominant (001) slip matches seismic observations at the root of hotter large-scale upwellings. Allowing for partial melt does not change these conclusions, while it significantly increases the strength of anisotropy and reduces shear and compressional velocities at the base of upwellings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cumulative displacement by multiple slip events along faults may generate composite damage zones (CDZ) of increasing width, and could modify the hydraulic and mechanical properties of the faults. The internal architecture and fracture distribution within CDZs at the subsurface are analysed here by using seismic attributes of variance, curvature and dip-azimuth of the 3-D seismic reflection data from tight sandstone reservoirs in northeast Sichuan, China. The analysed faults intersect the reservoir within a depth range of 2.4–3.0 km. The damage intensity mapping revealed multiple CDZs with thicknesses approaching 1 km along faults ranging 3–15 km in length, and up to 1000 m of cumulative slip. The identification of numerous fault cores and associate damage zones led us to define three classes of CDZs: banded shape, box shape and dome shape. The mechanical strength contrasts and distortion of fault cores suggest potential weakening and strengthening (healing) mechanisms for formation of CDZs that can be extended to faulting processes and earthquake simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate synthetic seismic wavefields can now be computed in 3-D earth models using the spectral element method (SEM), which helps improve resolution in full waveform global tomography. However, computational costs are still a challenge. These costs can be reduced by implementing a source stacking method, in which multiple earthquake sources are simultaneously triggered in only one teleseismic SEM simulation. One drawback of this approach is the perceived loss of resolution at depth, in particular because high-amplitude fundamental mode surface waves dominate the summed waveforms, without the possibility of windowing and weighting as in conventional waveform tomography. This can be addressed by redefining the cost-function and computing the cross-correlation wavefield between pairs of stations before each inversion iteration. While the Green's function between the two stations is not reconstructed as well as in the case of ambient noise tomography, where sources are distributed more uniformly around the globe, this is not a drawback, since the same processing is applied to the 3-D synthetics and to the data, and the source parameters are known to a good approximation. By doing so, we can separate time windows with large energy arrivals corresponding to fundamental mode surface waves. This opens the possibility of designing a weighting scheme to bring out the contribution of overtones and body waves. It also makes it possible to balance the contributions of frequently sampled paths versus rarely sampled ones, as in more conventional tomography. Here we present the results of proof of concept testing of such an approach for a synthetic 3-component long period waveform data set (periods longer than 60 s), computed for 273 globally distributed events in a simple toy 3-D radially anisotropic upper mantle model which contains shear wave anomalies at different scales. We compare the results of inversion of 10 000 s long stacked time-series, starting from a 1-D model, using source stacked waveforms and station-pair cross-correlations of these stacked waveforms in the definition of the cost function. We compute the gradient and the Hessian using normal mode perturbation theory, which avoids the problem of cross-talk encountered when forming the gradient using an adjoint approach. We perform inversions with and without realistic noise added and show that the model can be recovered equally well using one or the other cost function. The proposed approach is computationally very efficient. While application to more realistic synthetic data sets is beyond the scope of this paper, as well as to real data, since that requires additional steps to account for such issues as missing data, we illustrate how this methodology can help inform first order questions such as model resolution in the presence of noise, and trade-offs between different physical parameters (anisotropy, attenuation, crustal structure, etc.) that would be computationally very costly to address adequately, when using conventional full waveform tomography based on single-event wavefield computations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project (TCDP) was initiated to understand the physical mechanisms involved in the large displacements of the 1999 Taiwan Chi-Chi earthquake. Continuous measurements of cores (including laboratory work) and a suite of geophysical downhole logs, including P- and S-wave sonic velocity, gamma ray, electrical resistivity, density, temperature, electrical borehole images and dipole-shear sonic imager, were acquired in Hole-A over the depth of 500–2003 m. Integrated studies of cores and logs facilitate qualitative and quantitative comparison of subsurface structures and physical properties of rocks. A total of 10 subunits were divided on the basis of geophysical characteristics. Generally, formation velocity and temperature increase with depth as a result of the overburden and thermal gradient, respectively. Gamma ray, resistivity, formation density, shear velocity anisotropy and density-derived porosity are primarily dependent on the lithology. Zones with changes of percentage of shear wave anisotropy and the fast shear polarization azimuth deduced from Dipole Shear-Imager (DSI) are associated with the appearance of fractures, steep bedding and shear zones. The fast shear wave azimuth is in good agreement with overall dip of the bedding (approximately 30° towards SE) and maximum horizontal compressional direction, particularly in the Kueichulin Formation showing strong shear wave velocity anisotropy. Bedding-parallel fractures are prevalent within cores, whereas minor sets of high-angle, NNW–SSE trending with N- and S-dipping fractures are sporadically distributed. The fault zone at depth 1111 m (FZA1111) is the Chi-Chi earthquake slip zone and could be a fluid conduit after the earthquake. The drastic change in fast shear wave polarization direction across the underlying, non-active Sanyi thrust at depth 1710 m reflects changes in stratigraphy, physical properties and structural geometry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A moderate earthquake of occurred on 2003 December 10. It ruptured the Chihshang Fault in eastern Taiwan which is the most active segment of the Longitudinal fault as a plate suture fault between the Luzon arc of the Philippine Sea plate and the Eurasian plate. The largest coseismic displacements were 13 cm (horizontal) and 26 cm (vertical). We analyse 40 strong motion and 91 GPS data to model the fault geometry and coseismic dislocations. The most realistic shape of the Chihshang fault surface is listric in type. The dipping angle of the seismic zone is steep (about 60°–70°) at depths shallower than 10 km and then gradually decreases to 40°–50° at depths of 20–30 km. Thus the polygonal elements in Poly3D are well suited for modelling complex surfaces with curving boundaries. Using the strong motion data, the displacement reaches 1.2 m dip-slip on the Chihshang Fault and decreases to 0.1 m near surface. The slip averages 0.34 m, releasing a scalar moment of 1.6E26 dyne-cm. For GPS data, our model reveals that the maximal dislocation is 1.8 m dip-slip. The dislocations decrease to 0.1 m near the surface. The average slip is 0.48 m, giving a scalar moment of 2.2E26 dyne-cm. Regarding post-seismic deformation, a displacements of 0.5 m were observed near the Chihshang Fault, indicating the strain had not been totally released, as a probable result of near-surface locking of the fault zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]