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This study investigated how farmed blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) can optimize human nutrient intake. A particular focus was on assessing nutrient preservation during steaming and freeze-drying, processes that could deplete nutrients. The study compared the content of essential amino acids and fatty acids in steamed and freeze-dried blue mussels to the nutritional needs of humans and farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Additionally, it assessed the ethyl acetate method versus the traditional, more toxic Folch method for lipid extraction from blue mussels. Both steaming and freeze-drying effectively preserved essential amino acids and fatty acids in blue mussels. A 100 g serving of steamed blue mussels contributes from 26.8 ± 0.78% (Phe) to 54.9 ± 1.66% (Thr) of the daily recommended intake of essential amino acids (EAA). For steamed freeze-dried blue mussels, over 100% of the recommended intake is met for all EAA and as much as 243% for threonine. The 100 g serving will also provide 271 mg eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and 220 mg docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3), thus covering the required intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for adults as well as the recommended intake for pregnant and lactating women. Mussels are non-fed filter feeders that generally provide these nutrients with significantly lower environmental footprints, measured as global warming, eutrophication, and acidification, compared to farmed Atlantic salmon. Blue mussels can also be a valuable feed ingredient for farmed Atlantic salmon. Finally, it was demonstrated that the ethyl acetate method is not suited for lipid extraction from blue mussels, as the lipid yield was only half compared to the lipid yield using the Folch method.

BackgroundAnimal and plant protein sources have contrasting relationships with nutrient adequacy and long-term health, and their adequate ratio is highly debated.ObjectiveWe aimed to explore how the percentage of plant protein in the diet (%PP) relates to nutrient adequacy and long-term health but also to environmental pressures, to determine the adequate and potentially optimal %PP values.MethodsObserved diets were extracted from the dietary intakes of French adults (INCA3, n = 1,125). Using reference values for nutrients and disease burden risks for foods, we modeled diets with graded %PP values that simultaneously ensure nutrient adequacy, minimize long-term health risks and preserve at best dietary habits. This multi-criteria diet optimization was conducted in a hierarchical manner, giving priority to long-term health over diet proximity, under the constraints of ensuring nutrient adequacy and food cultural acceptability. We explored the tensions between objectives and identified the most critical nutrients and influential constraints by sensitivity analysis. Finally, environmental pressures related to the modeled diets were estimated using the AGRIBALYSE database.ResultsWe find that nutrient-adequate diets must fall within the ~15–80% %PP range, a slightly wider range being nevertheless identifiable by waiving the food acceptability constraints. Fully healthy diets, also achieving the minimum-risk exposure levels for both unhealthy and healthy foods, must fall within the 25–70% %PP range. All of these healthy diets were very distant from current typical diet. Those with higher %PP had lower environmental impacts, notably on climate change and land use, while being as far from current diet.ConclusionThere is no single optimal %PP value when considering only nutrition and health, but high %PP diets are more sustainable. For %PP > 80%, nutrient fortification/supplementation and/or new foods are required.

Providing a growing global population with healthy and sustainable diets is an immediate challenge. In the current study, estimates were obtained for the environmental footprints (land, water, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions) in association with the Mediterranean diet (MED) and the EAT-Lancet reference diet, which represents a healthy diet derived from sustainable food systems. We used a newly developed Sustainable Healthy Diet (SHED) index that was validated for the Israeli population by Tepper et al. in 2020.MethodsA group of 525 participants were recruited via social media, email, and phone. Demographic characteristics, quality of life, and answers to the SHED-index questionnaire were obtained. Dietary assessment was performed using the 116-item Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), which was developed for the Israeli population. Adherence to the MED was calculated using a 9-point score. Adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet was assessed through the consumption of 14 food components. The environmental pressure of these dietary patterns was determined based on the “footprint family indicators,” which include land, water, and carbon footprints per unit of agricultural and food products. We assigned values for each food comprising the FFQ and calculated the environmental load for each dietary pattern. Statistical analyses were performed using the R package version 4.1.1 to compare environmental footprint values according to tertiles of the MED score, EAT-Lancet score, and SHED score.ResultsThe participants (n = 525) were 49% women, educated (82% had academic education), and physically active, and only 13% were smokers. The highest tertiles of adherence to the MED, adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet, and the SHED index were associated with the lowest GHG emissions and land use, as well as higher water use. Meat consumption contributed the most to land use, while dairy contributed the most to GHG emissions, and fruits contributed the most to water use.ConclusionsOur analysis reveals that animal protein is the highest contributor to GHG emissions and land use, while fruits and vegetables contribute the most to water consumption. Nevertheless, most of the fruits and vegetables are grown using treated wastewater, which reduces environmental pressure. Given these findings, we suggest that MED and EAT-Lancet dietary patterns should be included in national dietary guidelines.

Immediate action is required in the Mediterranean to address environmental degradation that is mainly driven by consumption patterns. Increasing stress on biological and social systems is put by unsustainable consumption patterns. Food consumption patterns are important drivers of environment degradation. The objective of this review paper is to explore natural resources-food nexus in the Mediterranean region by highlighting the environmental footprints of the current consumption and production patterns. Secondary data from different sources such as FAOSTAT, the World Bank, Water Footprint Network (WFN) and Global Footprint Network were used to analyse the situation in 21 Mediterranean countries. The region faces many environmental challenges e.g. land degradation, water scarcity, environment pollution, biodiversity loss and climate change. The current consumption patterns imply high ecological, carbon and water footprints of consumption and unfavourable national virtual water balances. Food Balance Sheets data show that the contribution of vegetal and animal-based food product groups to food supply is variable among the Mediterranean countries. This has implications also in terms of the WF of food supply, which was calculated for Bosnia, Egypt, Italy, Morocco and Turkey. The WF of the current diet resulted lower than that of the proposed Mediterranean one in the case of Italy. There is a strong scientific evidence supporting assumption that it is so also for other Mediterranean countries. The Mediterranean is characterised by a high resource use intensity that is further exacerbated by food losses and waste (FLW). In fact, FLW implies the loss of precious resources (water, land, energy) and inputs (fertilisers). Therefore, it is crucial to increase adherence to the traditional Mediterranean diet and to reduce FLW in order to foster transition to more sustainable food consumption patterns thus reducing pressure on the scarce resources of the Mediterranean region.