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Maize grain samples collected from 129 small-scale farmers' stores in southern and southwestern Ethiopia were analysed by LC-MS/MS for a total of 218 mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites of which 15% were regulated mycotoxins. Mycotoxins produced by Penicillium , Aspergillus , and Fusarium accounted for 31%, 17%, and 12% of the metabolites, respectively. Most of the current samples were contaminated by masked and/or emerging mycotoxins with moniliformin being the most prevalent one, contaminating 93% of the samples. Each sample was co-contaminated by 3 to 114 mycotoxins/fungal metabolites. Zearalenone, fumonisin B1, and deoxynivalenol were the dominant mycotoxins, occurring in 78%, 61%, and 55% of the samples with mean concentrations of 243, 429, and 530 µg/kg, respectively. The widespread co-occurrence of several mycotoxins in the samples may pose serious health risks due to synergistic/additional effects.

The occurrence of free and hidden fumonisins in raw maize and maize-based products from China was investigated. A total of 58 samples were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Among all the samples, 66% were contaminated with free fumonisins above limits of quantitation, and a higher percentage of 86% was found for total fumonisins (free + hidden). The highest contamination levels were observed in dried maize kernels which appeared mouldy, with mean levels of 15,737 and 30,785 µg/kg for free and total fumonisins, respectively. Frozen maize kernels, fresh maize kernels, and maize starch samples exhibited the lowest contamination levels, with no more than 200 µg/kg of total fumonisins. Except for one sample, the concentrations of total fumonisins were greater than those of free fumonisins with all the samples, the ratios of total-to-free fumonisins varied between 1.1 and 5.2, with an average ratio of 2.0.

In Argentina, wheat is the most consumed cereal by the human population. Since fumonisins occurence in wheat grains and wheat-based products have been reported worldwide, a survey was conducted in order to determine fumonisin contamination in 91 wheat-based products (white wheat flour samples, wheat flour used at bakery products and whole-wheat flour samples) collected from different retail stores of Rio Cuarto city in Argentina using HPLC-MS/MS. Sixty-seven samples (74%) showed contamination by fumonisins. From these samples, 16 showed fumonisin levels between LOD and LOQ (between 0.01 to 0.05 ng/g), while fumonisins (FB 1 + FB 2 ) in quantifiable samples ranged from 0.05 ng/g to 18.9 ng/g. Although FB 1 was more prevalent, FB 2 was foun3d in higher levels than FB 1 . Overall, fumonisin prevalence was high, but concentrations were far below EU or USA limits set for maize and maize-based products.

A total of 249 maize kernel samples from 8 maize-producing provinces of China were collected after the harvest season in 2014. All samples were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography. The incidences of FBs (FB 1  + FB 2 ) from Guizhou, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Chongqing, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Henan provinces were 71.4%, 73.8%, 28.0%, 52.6%, 85.0%, 87.5%, 38.1%, and 100.0%, respectively. The average concentration of FBs was 817 µg kg -1 and the concentrations ranged from <6 to 15,252 µg kg -1 . Among the 249 maize kernel samples, 28 samples exhibited higher levels as set by the Food and Drug Administration (2000 µg kg -1 ), whereas 12 samples exhibited higher levels as set by the European Commission (4000 µg kg -1 ). The average exposure to FBs (0.12 µg kg -1 body weight/day) is within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2.0 µg kg -1 body weight as set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.

Natural contamination of sorghum grains by aflatoxin B 1 and total fumonisin and their producing toxigenic fungi has been studied. A total of 90 sorghum grain samples were collected from small-scale farmers' threshing floors and 5-6 months later from underground pits during 2013 harvest from three districts of East Hararghe, Ethiopia. Mycotoxin analysis was done using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The limits of detection were in the range 0.01-0.03 μg kg -1 . The results revealed that all sorghum grain samples were contaminated with both Aspergillus and Fusarium species. Aflatoxin B 1 was detected at levels ranging from -1 grain. There were marked variations in aflatoxin B 1 concentrations between fresh and stored samples, with much higher levels in the latter. Total fumonisin levels varied between 907 and 2041 µg kg -1 grain across the samples. Lowest total fumonisin was recorded in freshly harvested sorghum grain samples. Sorghum is a main staple cereal in the studied districts and its consumption per day per person is high. Daily intake of low doses of mycotoxin-contaminated food stuff over a period of time could lead to chronic mycotoxicosis.

A total of 225 maize kernel samples were collected from Shandong Province in China from 2012 to 2014 and analysed for contamination with Fusarium spp. and fumonisins (FBs) using molecular methods and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The results showed that the average incidences of Fusarium spp. in 2012, 2013 and 2014 were 23.3%, 37.1% and 36.5%, respectively, Fusarium verticillioides being the predominant species. In 2012, the average contamination level of FBs was 3071 ng g(-1), which was higher than that in 2014 (2913 ng g(-1)) and 2013 (2072 ng g(-1)). Of all samples, 13% and 19% had FB contamination levels higher than 2000 and 4000 ng g(-1), which are the maximum limits as set by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Commission, respectively. Therefore, efforts should be taken to minimise the potential risk of FBs to the health of humans and animals.

Fumonisin occurrence was investigated in subsistence maize in four rural villages in each of Mbizana and Centane areas, South Africa. Samples (total 211) were analysed morphologically for Fusarium species and by high performance liquid chromatography for fumonisins. The mean incidence levels of Fusarium verticillioides in Centane good maize were 16% for both 1997 and 2000, but increased to 32% in 2003, whereas Mbizana good maize contained levels of 17% and 11% (2000 and 2003 seasons, respectively). The mean total fumonisin level in good maize in Centane for 1997 and 2000 was 575 and 975 µg/kg and 2150 µg/kg in 2003. In Mbizana, the mean total fumonisin level in good maize for 2000 was 950 µg/kg, but decreased to 610 µg/kg in 2003. The 2003 drought conditions led to a substantial increase in fumonisin levels in dry subhumid Centane, compared to humid subtropical Mbizana. This study emphasises the seasonal fluctuation in fumonisin levels.

This survey reports the occurrence of fumonisins (FBs) and fungi in dry soybeans sold for human consumption. The variation levels were 138-1495 µg kg(-1) and 178-552 µg kg(-1) for FB1 and FB2, respectively. In addition, potentially toxigenic fungi as Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium genera were isolated in the samples. These can be considered as indicator-toxin and can produce considerable amounts of mycotoxins. Despite FB presence in the soybeans for human consumption, there is no legal regulation. Therefore, it is important to emphasise the need for frequent monitoring of these contaminants in soybeans.

In this study a total of 522 samples were collected from Shandong province of China in 2014 and analysed for the occurrence of fumonisin B1 (FB1), FB2 and FB3 by isotope dilution ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Fumonisins were detected in 98.1% of the corn products, with the average total level of 369.2 μg kg(-1). The individual average values of FB1, FB2 and FB3 in corn products were 268.3, 53.7 and 47.2 μg kg(-1), respectively. The simultaneous occurrence of FB1, FB2 and FB3 was observed in 76.7% of the corn products. Especially, the results demonstrated that the difference in the contamination levels for fumonisins in these three types of corn products was apparent. In addition, 6.2% of the wheat flour samples were contaminated with FB1, with concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 34.6 µg kg(-1). No FB2 or FB3 was detected in wheat flour. In corn oil samples no fumonisins were detected.

A total of 125 maize kernel samples were collected from Hebei province in China during 2011-2013 and were analysed for incidence and contamination levels of fumonisins (FB₁ + FB₂) by HPLC with fluorescence detection. The incidence of FBs for all samples was 46.4%. The mean contamination level of FBs for the samples collected in 2013 was 706 μg kg⁻¹, which was higher than the levels in 2012 (429 μg kg⁻¹) and 2011 (250 μg kg⁻¹). All samples, except five, exhibited total FB levels below 4000 μg kg⁻¹, which is the maximum limit as set by the European Commission. The probable daily intakes of FBs (0.04 in 2011; 0.07 in 2012; 0.12 in 2013, expressed as μg kg⁻¹ body weight/day) were all within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2.0 μg kg⁻¹ of body weight/day as set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Nevertheless, monitoring is needed to prevent and control the potential risk of FB exposure to the consumers.

The aim of this study was to detect and quantify fumonisin B1 (FB1) in cereal mixtures marketed in Brazil. Fifteen samples from different lots were acquired each month by internet from supermarkets during seven months, adding up to 105 analysed samples. The unit sample constituted of an original package with a minimum of 250 g. Extraction and clean-up of samples for FB1 determination were carried out using immunoaffinity columns. Identification and quantification of FB1 were performed by high performance liquid chromatography. Eighty-eight (83.8%) samples were contaminated with FB1 and four (3.8%) presented levels above 500 µg kg(-1) (634, 703, 1269 and 1876 µg kg(-1)). Maximum FB1 + FB2 levels allowed by Brazilian regulations will reach 1500 µg kg(-1) for corn flour in 2016 and 1000 µg kg(-1) for others corn products. This study showed that even at levels below the legislative limits, human exposure to this toxin can occur constantly.

A total of 232 samples of corn commercialised in Santa Catarina state, Southern Brazil (temperate zone climate), were evaluated from 2007 to 2012 for fumonisins (FBs: FB1 and FB2). Before performing this study, a FBs method with liquid chromatography and fluorescence detection (ex. 335; em. 440 nm) was validated first. FBs were detected in 46.6% (108 samples), with values ranging from 66 to 7832 µg kg(-1) for FB1 and 110 to 1201 µg kg(-1) for FB2. The number of contaminated corn samples for FB1 and FB2 varied and often presented contamination of FB1 only. Per year of analysis, the numbers were: n = 22/8(FB1/FB2), 44/5(FB1/FB2), 25/12(FB1/FB2), 4(FB1), 6(FB1) and 7(FB1) in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012, respectively. The contamination percentage was 42.3/15.4, 59.5/6.8, 43.8/21.1, 36.4, 35.3 and 33.3%, respectively, during these years. Consumers can be exposed to these mycotoxins and their health can be at risk through the consumption of contaminated corn.

Monitoring results of food grain contamination with fusariotoxins-deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FB1&FB2), T-2 and HT-2 toxins-are presented. Harvests of 2005-2010 in different regions of Russia were investigated. The occurrence of DON in wheat was 8%, barley 9%, oats 4%, rye 2% and maize 2%. The highest frequency of ZEN contamination was found in oats, the lowest in wheat. Calculated average daily intake of DON varied from 0.066 to 0.096 µg/kg body weight, the highest being found in the Southern region, but substantially lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake. The results of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated the presence of T-2 toxin in 14% and HT-2 toxin in 17% of all samples. The maximum level of T-2 toxin was exceeded only in one sample of barley. Relatively high frequency and levels of FB1&FB2 contamination were found in maize.

A total of 420 feedstuff samples were collected from China to determine and quantify T-2 toxin (T-2), zearalenone (ZEN) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁). The contents of mycotoxins were determined by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with three-step cleanup and fluorescence detection. The mean recoveries of mycotoxins in spiked feedstuffs ranged from 72.2% to 95%. The limits of detection and quantification ranged from 1.8 to 5.7 and 6 to 19 µg/kg, respectively. Of the 420 analysed feedstuff samples, the incidence of T-2, ZEN and FB₁ was 79.5%, 85.2% and 96.1%, respectively; levels detected ranged from 10-735, 35-1478 and 20-6568 µg/kg, respectively. The results suggest a risk for domestic animals and humans. Further, the procedure was found to be suitable for determination of mycotoxins in feedstuffs and can be used for routine analysis. This is the first report in China on natural contamination of feedstuffs with these mycotoxins.

A total of 120 pelleted poultry feed samples from Entre Ríos Province, Argentina, were evaluated. The aims were to investigate (1) the presence of relevant toxigenic fungi, as well as to determine the ability to produce aflatoxins (AFs) by Aspergillus section Flavi isolated strains; and (2) the natural co-occurrence of AFs, fumonisins (FBs), gliotoxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), HT-2 and T-2 toxin by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Total fungal counts were below the established value (1 × 10⁴ CFU g⁻¹). Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus were the only aflatoxigenic species isolated. Co-occurrence of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), HT-2 and T-2 toxin was detected in 100% of the feeds, with mean levels from 4502 to 5813; 6.7 to 21.6 and 19.6 to 30.3 µg kg⁻¹, respectively. A large number of starter samples were co-contaminated with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), FB₁, HT-2 and T-2 toxins. Gliotoxin and DAS were not found in this survey.

Fumonisins B₁, B₂ and B₃ (FB₁, FB₂ and FB₃) and aflatoxins B₁ (AFB₁), B₂ (AFB₂), G₁ (AFG₁) and G₂ (AFG₂) are both major mycotoxins of food concern, because of their wide range of concentration and possible co-occurrence. Therefore, a contamination survey in corn and wheat flour by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was carried out. Quantification of fumonisins and aflatoxins was based on internal calibration (by the use of ¹³C₃₄-fumonisin) and external calibration, respectively. Fumonisins were detected in 95% of corn samples and in 7% of wheat flour samples, with the mean level (FB₁ + FB₂ + FB₃) of 441 µg kg⁻¹ and 0.09 µg kg⁻¹, respectively. Low levels of aflatoxins were detected in 37% of the samples with a mean level (B₁ + B₂ + G₁ + G₂) of 0.12 µg kg⁻¹. Fumonisins and aflatoxins were not detected in 29% of the samples analysed. Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins was observed in 12% of samples.

The mycoflora and mycotoxins contamination of commercial maize and rice grains collected from local markets of the major five zones of the province of Cairo, Egypt, represented by 20 different districts were studied. A total number of about 23 species belonging to 12 different genera of fungi were isolated and identified. About 70% of the samples were infected with Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger, with percentages of 33%, 40% recovered from maize and 46%, 27% recovered from rice, respectively. The percentages of infection of maize ranged from 16% to 142%. The percentages of infection of rice seeds ranged from 6% to 93%. Total aflatoxins and fumonisins detected in maize averaged 9.75 and 33 µg/kg, respectively. Total aflatoxins and fumonisins detected in rice averaged 5.15 and 1014 µg/kg, respectively.

Between February and October 2009, 324 grain, feed and feed commodity samples were sourced directly at animal farms or feed production sites in Middle East and Africa and tested for the presence of A- and B-trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, or for selected groups of mycotoxins only. Samples were analyzed after clean-up by immunoaffinity or solid-phase extraction followed by HPLC with derivatization where appropriate and fluorescence, UV or mass spectrometric detection. The percentage of positive samples of B-trichothecenes ranged from 0 to 87% of tested samples. The prevalence of fumonisins in the different countries was >50% in most cases. Zearalenone was present in tested commodities from all countries except three. The presence of aflatoxin in analyzed samples varied from 0 to 94%. Ochratoxin A was present in 67% of samples in Sudan and in 100% of Nigerian samples. No A-trichothecenes were found in this survey.

We analysed a total of 2258 grain samples over a 3-year period (2006-2008) from 93 storage centers in the principal maize cultivation area of Italy to establish the levels of fumonisin contamination. Fumonisin concentrations were measured using ELISA (RIDASCREEN) fumonisin test kits. Mean levels of contamination were remarkably high in each year, with the highest value in 2006 (10.9 mg/kg) and the lowest in 2008 (4.8 mg/kg). Similarly, for each year, variations were quite large: from

A survey was conducted to determine the occurrence of fumonisin B1, B2 and B3 during 2007 in 186 samples of organic and conventional locally available corn products. Samples included baby food (n = 62), corn flour (11), cornflakes (23), pasta (14), cookies (17) and other corn products (59) were obtained from popular markets of Valencia (Spain) and Perugia (Italy). The analytical method used pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry with a triple quadrupole (QqQ) analyser. Of the 104 Spanish samples, 22% contained levels in the range of 2-449 µg kg(-1), 2-229 µg kg(-1) and 6-105 µg kg(-1) for FB1, FB2 and FB3, respectively, while 19 (23%) of the 82 Italian samples were positive with quantifiable levels between 2-235 µg kg(-1), 3-187 µg kg(-1), and 4-40 µg kg(-1) for fumonisins B1, B2 and B3, respectively. Overall, none of the Italian samples and only one organic baby food sample from a Spanish market was above the maximum permitted levels established by European legislation. Fumonisins were found mostly in corn flour followed by cookies and cornflakes. Eleven samples from Spain and nine samples from Italy were organic products, being contaminated the 72% and 77% of the samples, respectively. Analysis of the results showed that levels of fumonisins in corn products were similar in Italy and Spain. The safety of fumonisin intake through corn products was demonstrated by the calculation of the estimated daily intake of both populations considering organic and conventional products separately, which ranged from 1.7 × 10(-3) to 0.72 µg kg(-1) bw day(-1) and comparing them with the provisional maximum total daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 µg kg(-1) bw day(-1) established by the European Union.