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There is a perception that anthropogenically-driven changes in nutrient supply to coastal waters influences the abundance, frequency and toxicity of harmful algal blooms (HABs) through a change in the form or ratio of nutrient that limits phytoplankton growth. If nutrient concentrations are not limiting for growth, then ratios do not influence floristic composition. At non-limiting concentrations, evidence that alteration of nitrogen: phosphorus (N:P) ratios has stimulated HABs is limited, and primarily based on hypothesised relationships in relatively few locations (in particular: Tolo Harbour Hong Kong and Dutch Coastal Waters). In all cases, an unequivocal causal link between an increase in HABs (frequency, magnitude or duration) and change in N or P as the limiting nutrient is difficult to establish. The silicon (Si) limitation hypothesis is generally supported by experimental evidence and field data on the nuisance flagellate Phaeocystis. We found little evidence that high N:Si ratios preferentially promote harmful dinoflagellates over benign species. Laboratory studies demonstrate that nutrient ratios can influence toxin production, but genus and species specific differences and environmental control make extrapolation of these data to the field difficult. Studies of the role of dissolved and particulate organic nutrients in the growth of HAB species, while limited, demonstrate the potential for organic nutrients (especially organic N) to support the growth of a range of HAB species. There is a clear need for better understanding of the role of mixotrophy in the formation of HABs and for studies of HAB and non-HAB species in competition for environmentally realistic concentrations of organic nutrients.

Recent European Court rulings in the context of eutrophication viewed proliferation of a particular species of algae as a disturbance to the balance of aquatic ecosystems and the proliferation of one or more species as a cause of a reduction in other species. We discuss the scientific basis for this opinion in relation to the growth of marine primary producers and current debates about ecosystem stability. Opposing views in this debate are those of (a) the ‘balance of nature’ paradigm, in which communities of organisms tend towards a stable climax composition, and (b) communities as dynamic systems that may be governed by ‘basins of attraction’ in state space. We use data from the Irish Sea and Narragansett Bay, together with a review of the literature, to show that: the dynamics of temperate marine phytoplankton, with seasonal successions, corresponds more to (b) than to (a); the temporary dominance of any one species of micro-alga or cyanobacterium is part of the natural dynamics of phytoplankton communities and does not permanently impact on other species. Understanding the phytoplankton as a dynamic system suggests its status should not be assessed against a 'climax' model and that eutrophication should be diagnosed from fundamental (nutrient-induced) perturbations of ecosystem state and function rather than from changes in fixed assemblages of species and thresholds of abundance.

Measurements of sub-surface light attenuation (Kd), Secchi depth and suspended particulate material (SPM) were made at 382 locations in transitional, coastal and offshore waters around the United Kingdom (hereafter UK) between August 2004 and December 2005. Data were analysed statistically in relation to a marine water typology characterised by differences in tidal range, mixing and salinity. There was a strong statistically significant linear relationship between SPM and Kd for the full data set. We show that slightly better results are obtained by fitting separate models to data from transitional waters and coastal and offshore waters combined. These linear models were used to predict Kd from SPM. Using a statistic (D) to quantify the error of prediction of Kd from SPM, we found an overall prediction error rate of 23.1%. Statistically significant linear relationships were also evident between the log of Secchi depth and the log of Kd in waters around the UK. Again, statistically significant improvements were obtained by fitting separate models to estuarine and combined coastal/offshore data – however, the prediction error was improved only marginally, from 31.6% to 29.7%. Prediction was poor in transitional waters (D = 39.5%) but relatively good in coastal/offshore waters (D = 26.9%). SPM data were extracted from long term monitoring data sites held by the UK Environment Agency. The appropriate linear models (estuarine or combined coastal/offshore) were applied to the SPM data to obtain representative Kd values from estuarine, coastal and offshore sites. Estuarine waters typically had higher concentrations of SPM (8.2–73.8 mg l−1) compared to coastal waters (3.0–24.1 mg l−1) and offshore waters (9.3 mg l−1). The higher SPM values in estuarine waters corresponded to higher values of Kd (0.8–5.6 m−1). Water types that were identified by large tidal ranges and exposure typically had the highest Kd ranges in both estuarine and coastal waters. In terms of susceptibility to eutrophication, large macrotidal, well mixed estuarine waters, such as the Thames embayment and the Humber estuary were identified at least risk from eutrophic conditions due to light-limiting conditions of the water type.

The question of whether the Irish Sea is eutrophic is addressed by reviewing the evidence for anthropogenic nutrient enrichment, elevated phytoplankton production and biomass and undesirable disturbance in the context of the EU and OSPAR definitions of eutrophication. Winter concentrations of dissolved available inorganic phosphate (DAIP), nitrogen (DAIN as nitrate and nitrite) and silicate (Si) in coastal waters and concentrations of DAIP and Si in offshore waters of the Irish Sea are elevated relative to winter Celtic Sea shelf break concentrations (0.5 μM DAIP, 7.7 μM DAIN and 2.7 μM Si). Significant, negative nutrient salinity relationships and analysis of the Isle of Man nutrient time-series indicate that the elevated Irish Sea levels of DAIP and DAIN are the result of anthropogenic enrichment with highest concentrations (≈2.0 μM DAIP, 30 μM DAIN and 17 μM Si) measured in near shore eastern Irish Sea waters. Summer levels of phytoplankton chlorophyll (Chl) range from

Nutrient data from five winter cruises since 1994 and the 40-year time series from the CYPRIS station in the Irish Sea are used to assess the controls of winter concentrations in the Celtic and Irish Seas and the Malin Shelf region of the north-west European shelf. At the Malin Shelf break, boundaries between ocean water, the shelf edge current and shelf waters were well defined by changes in salinity, temperature and concentrations of nutrients (nitrate + nitrite (N), phosphate (P) and silicate (Si)). Concentrations fell from oceanic values of 11.0 [mu]M N, 0.68 [mu]M P and 4.75 [mu]M Si to 7.4 [mu]M N, 0.53 [mu]M P and 3.3 [mu]M Si in open shelf sea waters. Across the Celtic Sea shelf break boundaries are less well defined. Areas of water with concentrations of nutrients below those off-shelf are detected in certain areas. Denitrification is a ubiquitous process on the shelf. The accumulated loss of nitrate relative to phosphate increases moving from the shelf break into the Irish Sea. Comparisons of estimated rates of denitrification with measured N:P ratios suggest waters on the Malin Shelf have an age of 400 days relative to ocean water crossing the shelf break. Across the Celtic Sea the transit time for water from the Atlantic Ocean into the central Irish Sea is six years, consistent with the complexity of water types and frontal structures. Concentrations at CYPRIS are consistent with the degree of nitrate loss from the water on route to the central Irish Sea. Relatively high concentrations of silicate measured at CYPRIS station indicate this location is more influenced by waters with an origin south of 53.5[deg]N than from the eastern Irish Sea

Sediment characteristics, sediment respiration (oxygen uptake and sulphate reduction) and sediment–water nutrient exchange, in conjunction with water column structure and phytoplankton biomass were measured at five stations across the western Irish Sea front in August 2000. The transition from thermally stratified (surface to bottom temperature difference of 2.3 °C) to isothermal water (14.3 °C) occurred over a distance of 13 km. The influence of the front on phytoplankton biomass was limited to a small region of elevated near surface chlorophyll (2.23 mg m −3 ; 50% > biomass in mixed waters). The front clearly marked the boundary between depositional sediments (silt/clays) with elevated sediment pigment levels (≈60 mg m −2 ) on the western side, to pigment impoverished ( −2 ) sand, through to coarse sand and shell fragments on the eastern side. Maximal rates of sedimentary respiration on the western stratified side of the front e.g. oxygen uptake S2 (852 μmol O 2 m −2 h −1 ) and sulphate reduction at S1 (149 μmol SO 4 2− m −2 h −1 ), coupled to significant efflux of nitrate and silicate at the western stations indicate closer benthic–pelagic coupling in the western Irish Sea. Whether this simply reflects the input of phytodetritus from the overlying water column or entrapment and settlement of pelagic production from other regions of the Irish Sea cannot yet be resolved.

Single point time-series data collected in the Irish Sea since 1954 by Allen et al. (1998) have been re-evaluated using more recent data and areal winter surveys of the Celtic and Irish Seas. Survey data illustrate the heterogeneity of nutrient distributions with N (≈28 M) and P (2·0 M) enrichment of the eastern Irish Sea relative to the western Irish Sea (7–8 M N and 0·7 M P). Salinity nutrient relationships demonstrate distinct regional differences throughout the two seas. Trends in the Isle of Man time-series are unlikely to have resulted from changes in analytical procedures and personnel. Concerns over data quality cannot be resolved and there are no independent data to validate the time-series. Including more recent data shows P has declined since the late 1980s and N concentrations have remained stable since the mid 1970s. The absence of a Si trend is consistent with limited anthropogenic influence on riverine Si concentrations. Trends in N and P are consistent with changes in riverine concentrations of these two nutrients and the biogeochemical processes controlling their cycling in shelf waters. Denitrification is the most likely reason for offshore Irish Sea concentrations of N being lower than expected.

Concentrations of nitrate and nitrite (N), phosphorus (P) and silica (Si) were measured at a grid of stations in the north-west Irish Sea throughout 1992. The data were treated synoptically by mapping and graphical analysis to integrate data from 28 different stations. In spring, there was concurrent depletion of N, Si and P in the molar ratio 9·5:6·4:1, indicating that N was depleted before P and Si. Areal integrals were calculated for N and P at each station, which ranged in depth between 15 and 150 m. Over the summer, P integrals reducedpro ratawith depth up to 60 m, but in stations deeper than 60 m, there was no further reduction in P. In contrast, the areal N integral decreased in proportion to depth even in the deepest stations. It is suggested that loss of N in the deepwater stations may be due to denitrification in the bottom water. Over the winter, N, P and Si concentrations returned to the winter maximum in more or less constant proportions. Mechanisms for the control of the nitrate concentration are discussed. A desk budget suggests thatin situregeneration of nitrate is the dominant process.

Relatively little is known about dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) in the marine environment because research has historically focused on dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN). In this study we combine measurements of dissolved organic matter (DOM), DIN, particulate organic nitrogen (PON), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) and silicon (DIS), with temperature and salinity data from the western shelf region of the UK and Ireland, and with inorganic and organic nitrogen (N) data from the western Irish Sea to develop an understanding of N dynamics in the Irish Sea and adjacent shelf waters, and investigate the role of DON in the nitrogen budget of the seasonally stratifying western Irish Sea. In January 2013, the sampling area was divided by density fronts into 4 regions of distinct oceanography and homogeneous chemistry. DON concentrations accounted for 25.3 ± 1.8% of total dissolved N (TDN) across all regions. DOM concentrations generally decreased from the freshwater influenced water of Liverpool Bay to the oceanic waters of the Celtic Sea and Malin Shelf. Urea and dissolved free amino acids (DFAA) together made up 27.3 ± 3.1% of DON. Estimated concentrations in the rivers discharging into Liverpool Bay were 8.0 and 2.1 μmol N L −1 respectively: at the high end of reported riverine concentrations. Oceanic nutrient inputs to the Irish Sea only have a small influence on N concentrations. Riverine N inputs to the Irish Sea are substantial but are likely removed by natural N cycling processes. In the western Irish Sea, DON and PON concentrations reached maxima and minima in midsummer and early spring respectively. DIN followed the opposite trend. DON accounted for 38% of the yearly internal N cycling and we estimated that as much as 1.4 ± 1.2 μmol N L −1 of labile DON was available as an N source at the start of the spring bloom. Our study supports the view that DON plays an important role in N cycling in temperate shelf and coastal seas and should be included more often in biogeochemical measurements if we are to have a complete understanding of N dynamics in a changing world.