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The foraging and predator-avoidance behaviors of mayfly (Baetis tricaudatus) nymphs and predator--prey interactions were investigated under differing combinations of cadmium concentration and predation risk. Predators consisted of stonefly (Kogotus nonus) nymphs, juvenile brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), and longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae), either alone or in combination. Organisms were exposed to 0, 0.5, or 5.0 µg/L Cd for 7 d (invertebrates) or 30 d (vertebrates) prior to observation in artificial stream channels. Behavioral observations (20-min duration) were made both day and night over a 24-h period. Mayfly feeding rate was assessed by image analysis of grazed diatom mats cultured on ceramic tiles. Both predators and cadmium produced significant effects on the behavior of B. tricaudatus and K. nonus nymphs, with mayflies showing a hierarchical response in the presence of multiple predators. A significant increase in activity was observed in S. fontinalis exposed to 5.0 µg/L Cd, with significant decreases in capture efficiency of prey items apparent at 0.5 µg/L Cd. Conversely, the foraging behavior of R. cataractae was unaffected by cadmium, possibly as a result of species-specific cadmium tolerance. Such sublethal effects of a contaminant on the energy budgets of individuals and the interactions between species have implications for community structure in aquatic food webs [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]