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In response to the challenges posed by the fragmentation of habitats and loss of native biodiversity, climate change adaptation and mitigation, diverse agri-environmental measures have been initiated across the European Union (EU) with the aim of fostering agricultural ecosystem service delivery. Previous studies adopting a governance perspective have identified various determinants of successful agri-environmental measures. However, the explanatory value of these studies is limited as the causal processes through which context and scheme design affect implementation success remain grey -boxed. This article uses a mechanism-based approach to uncover the causal processes that underlie actions and interactions within agri-environmental governance arrangements and provides insights into the role the interplay between context and scheme design plays in the successful implementation of agri-environmental measures. The empirical focus is the governance of a successful collective agri-environmental scheme in the Netherlands. In opening the grey box of the causal mechanisms that link contextual and scheme design with their results, the paper applies theory building process tracing methods. Results show that implementation success in the case is explained by the interplay between social learning and trust-building mechanisms. We argue that EU and domestic decision-makers aiming to improve the contribution of agri-environmental measures to climate change adaptation and mitigation must consider the contextual conditions that facilitate increased cooperation between stakeholders and, ultimately, successful implementation of measures. • A mechanism-based approach uncovers the causal processes within agri-environmental governance arrangements. • The the interplay between contexts and scheme design enables implementation success of agri-environmental measures. • Implementation success in the case is explained by an interplay of social learning and trust-building mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the concept of "institutional readiness" (IR) applied to the adoption and mainstreaming of Nature-based solutions (NBS) to deal with climate related risks. We argue that barriers towards up-scaling and mainstreaming of NBS are a manifestation of uncertainty, and are often associated with the 'readiness' of the institutional setting rather than with the readiness of the NBS technology itself. We align the concepts of Institutional Readiness (IR) to the more widely used concept of Technology Readiness Level (TRL) to understand drivers and barriers for adoption of NBS and analyse the role of institutional capacity. We illustrate this with the case study of the Urban Water Buffer Spangen in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, which is an NBS with high TRL. To do so, we constructed a timeline of the design and implementation process of the NBS, identifying and classifying key uncertainties as well as the strategies applied to deal with these uncertainties, particularly in the institutional context. Our results indicate that for mainstreaming of NBS, Institutional Readiness (IR) should be at a degree where strategies to deal with uncertainties in institutional, organizational and governance contexts can be integrated in the design and planning process. We claim that the concept of IR should be considered in its role to deal with uncertainty, in order to close the documented gap of NBS implementation and mainstreaming. • A timeline analysis of NBS implementation identifies its key drivers and barriers. • Uncertainties need to be managed, especially in the social system. • Institutional readiness (IR) is crucial to facilitate adoption of NBS. • IR concept useful to inform strategies that increase institutional capacity for NBS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inclusive conservation is promoted as a means to integrate stakeholders in nature, conservation. Despite several studies recognizing that inclusive conservation of protected areas may be challenging and requires explicitly addressing potential tensions between stakeholders, little research has unpacked how these tensions manifest in specific contexts. This paper aims to explore possible approaches for navigating tensions to improve the facilitation of an inclusive conservation approach in the Utrechtse Heuvelrug National Park in the Netherlands. We conducted 18 semistructured interviews with stakeholders such as public and private landowners and, municipal and provincial governments in the national park. Results reveal a longer history of collaboration which still fails to address the root of the tensions. The experiences show that compromising or consensus building amongst stakeholders alone is not sufficient for achieving inclusive conservation. Guidance and clear goals set by policy, as well as sufficient investments in capacity and trust building are recommended to avoid inaction. Furthermore, we found that tensions are inextricably linked to different dimensions of power, such as discursive and structural power. While considering power in inclusive conservation can provide a realistic perspective we also, acknowledge that equalizing power is not the silver bullet underpinning this conservation approach. • We investigate an inclusive conservation approach "on the ground" in a Dutch case study. • Tensions lie in unclarities in governance and collaborative platforms. • Power imbalances contributed to deepening tensions. • Enhancing capacities, leadership, and trust could benefit inclusive conservation approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how the notion of ‘sustainability’ is strategically framed in the context of Dutch infrastructure governance in the Netherlands. By conducting a frame analysis (based on policy documents, websites and semi-structured interviews), the paper discerns six sustainability frames. These frames concern substantive (e.g., more focus on ecology), process (activating new networks) and organizational (e.g., new practices of work) aspects. The paper also illustrates how these sustainability frames relate to the changing institutional context of infrastructure policy and governance more broadly. The paper discusses some of the productive and challenging implications of the dynamics of sustainability in today’s complex and multi-dimensional world of governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We develop a framework for analysing the role of Science Policy Interfaces in Flood Risk Governance. • We apply this framework to England, France and the Netherlands using policy analysis and stakeholder interviews. • SPIs help diversify FRM; increase their connectivity, facilitate decentralisation of FRM and foster inter-country learning. • SPIs can steer FRG, either along existing pathways, or towards new and potentially transformative change. • SPIs are an underexposed factor explaining dynamics in flood risk governance which merits more systematic empirical study. In the face of increasing threats from flooding, there are growing calls to strengthen and improve arrangements of flood risk governance (FRG). This endeavour requires an appreciation of the multitude of factors stabilising and driving governance dynamics. So-called catalyst flood events, policy champions and advocacy coalitions have tended to dominate this study to date, whilst the potential role played by Science Policy Interfaces (SPIs) has been somewhat neglected and often approached in a reductionist and fragmented way. This paper addresses this gap by drawing from in-depth policy analysis and stakeholder interviews conducted within England, France and the Netherlands under the auspices of the EU-FP7 STAR-FLOOD project. The analysis reveals four prominent ways in which SPIs shape FRG, by i) facilitating the diversification of Flood Risk Management (FRM) strategies; ii) increasing their connectivity, iii) facilitating a decentralisation of FRM and iv) fostering inter-country learning. It identifies different roles of specific interfaces (structures) and interfacing mechanisms (processes) in shaping governance dynamics. This way, the analysis reveals various 'entry points' through which SPIs can steer FRG, either along existing pathways, or towards new and potentially transformative change. The study shows that SPIs are a hitherto underexposed factor explaining dynamics in flood risk governance which merits additional systematic empirical study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Scholars stress the need to bring science and policy together for effective policy making. This paper highlights an interesting site of co-production: the second Dutch Delta Committee. Consisting of representatives of science, politics, policy and industry, this state committee advised the Dutch government on adapting to climate change in 2008. Although the committee went beyond common climate projections and advocated non-incremental policy recommendations, its report provoked little opposition. Subsequently, its recommendations shaped institutional reform and policy development in Dutch adaptive governance. Using the concept of boundary organisations, this paper opens up the black box of the advisory process to explain the Delta Committee''s functioning. We conclude that the current understanding of the effectiveness of boundary organisations tends to focus on their internal organisation. The internal processing, shaped by the deliberate composition and organisation of the committee, was indeed important for the production of useful knowledge and management of multiple boundaries. However, this was paralleled by external practices of continued interaction with a range of political, departmental, scientific and public actors in which the Committee positioned the advise. While the former mainly enabled the production of a high quality advice, the latter quested for its acceptation and legitimacy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Participatory capacity building has potential for bilateral knowledge sharing. • Citizens and authorities share knowledge more easily in informal and equal context. • Using existing capacity for building (other) capacity may form a double-edged sword. • The role researchers play in participation requires careful consideration. Social capacity building is increasingly suggested as strategy for supporting vulnerable communities in dealing with natural hazards such as floods. However, research on the empirical implementation of social capacity building is still limited. This paper presents a conceptualisation and an empirical case study of participatory social capacity building for flood risk mitigation in the Netherlands. We designed and implemented two distinct participatory pilots, studied the processes and outcomes to assess what factors influence social capacity building, and assessed how existing capacity may be leveraged. Social capacity is herein conceptualised as consisting of five dimensions: Knowledge, Motivation, Networks, Finance, and Participation. The first pilot included a walk in flood-prone areas and a discussion session with citizens and flood risk authority representatives. The second pilot involved elementary school pupils interviewing senior citizens with flood experience. Based on qualitative observation and analysis of the processes, findings suggest there is good potential for mutual sharing of knowledge if all participating actors are equal in the participatory process, and that informal settings open up debates, but also that leveraging existing social capacities might inadvertently impede the dissemination of knowledge that is vital in coping with (future) disaster risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper explores how the concept of robustness can be defined and made operational for flood risk management. Decision making about taking actions to reduce the flood risk is complicated by uncertainties about the current and future flood probabilities and impacts. Because decision makers are increasingly aware of uncertainties, new decision-making approaches are being explored. Among other concepts, robustness is put forward by decision makers in the Netherlands as a way to deal with uncertainties. However, they cannot specify what makes a system more robust. This paper defines robustness as the ability of a system to remain functioning under disturbances, where the magnitude of the disturbance is variable and uncertain. We present a conceptual framework for analysing system robustness, and we suggest how the robustness of flood risk systems can be quantified. The ideas are tested on the Westerschelde flood risk system in the Netherlands. This case shows that analysing system robustness provides additional insight into the effect of flood risk reduction measures on system behaviour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, we present results from a survey on the perceived roles of organisations on the production and transfer of knowledge in Dutch soil policy. The results are interpreted by applying three theoretical perspectives to this relation: technical communities, epistemic communities and Mode 2 knowledge production. The main research results show that, since the perceived roles of organisations in some cases do not match the intended roles, or are inconsistent, communication of roles by organisations in the policy field is not effective. A second conclusion is that the respondents advocated an increase in interaction among policy levels and between knowledge production and policymaking. From the results, it seems that the Dutch soil policy field is on its way to a mode of socially robust knowledge production, where knowledge production, knowledge transfer and policymaking are integrated. In order to further this development, the paper provides recommendations on the further integration of science and policy concerning soil policy in the Netherlands. With respect to the methodology of survey research on the interaction between science and policy, the paper illustrates the importance of the professional identities of the respondents. The professional identities of the respondents are an important explanatory variable for the perceived roles of organisations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper describes the development and application of an approach to adapt the existing flood defences along the Dutch Wadden Sea coast to the effects of climate change and sea level rise in the context of other uncertainties and developments. It starts with the development of a dike-portfolio with traditional as well as new flood protection concepts. Next these concepts are evaluated by means of a multi-criteria analysis by local experts. The objective is to identify realistic adaptation options that use or enable natural processes to strengthen ecological resilience and facilitate sustainable human use in the Wadden region. In our analyses Eco-engineering concepts (in rural areas) as well as a Multifunctional dike (in built-up areas) received the highest scores. Multifunctional dikes are robust and offer space for other functions and values. However, their performance in an integral assessment strongly depends on the applied functions and the weight per evaluation criterion. Eco-engineering concepts can potentially contribute to nature and landscape values, but implementation may lead to tension with nature legislation. For the Wadden Sea landscape, which is characterised by the presence of semi-natural salt marshes, the application of vegetated foreshores for flood protection comes forward as being particularly attractive. For every specific stretch of the 227 km long coastline the study has identified the most promising dike concept. The result of this study has been adopted by the national government and the regional water boards as a basis for more detailed analysis and design per stretch of coast. Additional modelling studies and cost benefit analyses will be required at this stage to verify the outcome of our studies and to optimise the design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the development and application of an approach to adapt the existing flood defences along the Dutch Wadden Sea coast to the effects of climate change and sea level rise in the context of other uncertainties and developments. It starts with the development of a dike-portfolio with traditional as well as new flood protection concepts. Next these concepts are evaluated by means of a multi-criteria analysis by local experts. The objective is to identify realistic adaptation options that use or enable natural processes to strengthen ecological resilience and facilitate sustainable human use in the Wadden region. In our analyses Eco-engineering concepts (in rural areas) as well as a Multifunctional dike (in built-up areas) received the highest scores. Multifunctional dikes are robust and offer space for other functions and values. However, their performance in an integral assessment strongly depends on the applied functions and the weight per evaluation criterion. Eco-engineering concepts can potentially contribute to nature and landscape values, but implementation may lead to tension with nature legislation. For the Wadden Sea landscape, which is characterised by the presence of semi-natural salt marshes, the application of vegetated foreshores for flood protection comes forward as being particularly attractive. For every specific stretch of the 227 km long coastline the study has identified the most promising dike concept. The result of this study has been adopted by the national government and the regional water boards as a basis for more detailed analysis and design per stretch of coast. Additional modelling studies and cost benefit analyses will be required at this stage to verify the outcome of our studies and to optimise the design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper we show how applying an analytical framing of hegemony to policy making can draw out strategic positioning and negotiation of the actors involved that would remain hidden with a more rationalistic analysis. We show how long established flood protection management from the Dutch lowlands was imported into Limburg after two major flood events (1993/1995) and we argue this case highlights how existing hegemony is easily replicated in new situations. With the shock caused by these floods came a securitising discourse that transformed the portrayal of flood risks in Limburg as ‘safety’ rather than ‘costly nuisance’. After an intense lobby by Limburg, the Meuse and its floodplains were included into the Dutch Flood Defence Law in 2005, becoming a national responsibility. While most Limburg inhabitants see increased protection against flooding as beneficial, the new law also meant strict design procedures and planning restrictions. Water expertise plays an important role in setting the new rules that determine which local ambitions are compatible with the national laws and policies. While securitisation helped to actively reproduce the existing (perception of) hegemonic relations in this case, the relationship between securitisation and hegemony is context-dependent, and both hegemon and non-hegemon can use a securitisation strategy to their advantage. Exactly how this will happen cannot be predicted, but ‘securitization’ and ‘hegemony’ are important sensitising concepts that can alert the observer to mechanisms of power re-distribution in other situations and settings. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Water management and particularly flood defence have a long history of collective action in low-lying countries like the Netherlands. The uncertain but potentially severe impacts of the recent climate change issue (e.g. sea level rise, extreme river discharges, salinisation) amplify the wicked and controversial character of flood safety policy issues. Policy proposals in this area generally involve drastic infrastructural works and long-term investments. They face the difficult challenge of framing problems and solutions in a publicly acceptable manner in ever changing circumstances. In this paper, we analyse and compare (1) how three key policy proposals publicly frame the flood safety issue, (2) the knowledge referred to in the framing and (3) how these frames are rhetorically connected or disconnected as statements in a long-term conversation. We find that (1) framings of policy proposals differ in the way they depict the importance of climate change, the relevant timeframe and the appropriate governance mode; (2) knowledge is selectively mobilised to underpin the different frames and (3) the frames about these proposals position themselves against the background of the previous proposals through rhetorical connections and disconnections. Finally, we discuss how this analysis hints at the importance of processes of powering and puzzling that lead to particular framings towards the public at different historical junctures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The future of human life in the world''s river deltas depends on the success of water management. To deal with uncertainties about the future, policymakers in the Netherlands have used scenarios to develop water management strategies for the coastal zone of the Rhine–Meuse delta. In this paper we reflect on six decades of scenario use in the Netherlands, and provide recommendations for future studies. Based on two criteria, ‘Decision robustness’ and ‘Learning success’, we conclude that (1) the possibilities for robust decisionmaking increased through a paradigm shift from predicting to exploring futures, but the scenario method is not yet fully exploited for decisionmaking under uncertainty; and (2) the scenarios enabled learning about possible impacts of developments and effectiveness of policy options. New scenario approaches are emerging to deal with the deep uncertainties water managers are currently facing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Urban development and regeneration present windows of opportunity to reduce flood vulnerability that are often not taken advantage of. Collaborative planning is needed to integrate planning and flood risk management and can be achieved by a social learning framework: Learning and Action Alliance (LAA). This paper presents a new framework on how to organise a LAA to support collaborative planning. The framework is verified based on empirical evidence from 2 case studies in The Netherlands where LAAs supported the adoption of an integrated approach to flood risk management and urban development. More than 60 interviews reported that the LAA helped develop and applied relevant knowledge in 3 types of joint activities: system analysis; collaborative design; and governance. These supported demonstration projects through 3 threads by: establishing facts; creating images; and setting ambitions. This was done via 3 streams by: addressing problems; developing solutions; and influencing politics. The new framework has been demonstrated to provide an effective guide to the organisation of a LAA and provides a new analytical tool to assess the impact of LAAs. Other success factors for LAAs and the better integration of flood risk management into the planning process are considered. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The use of science to inform and underpin decision-making on natural resources is not self-evident as stakeholders often use science in a selective and strategic way. Scientific analyses of science utilisation often focus on how the science–policy interface is organised and from this perspective provide recommendations to scientists about how they can increase their contribution to decision-making. Yet in this paper we argue that a wider perspective on the science–policy interface, in particular by analysing the roles and interactions of actors other than those directly involved, provides both additional explanations and new points of application for strategies aimed at enhancing science utilisation. We illustrate our claim by means of an analysis of decision-making on cockle fisheries and gas mining in the Dutch Wadden Sea between the 1990s and 2004. For many years, scientific studies addressing the ecological effects of these activities were not used to meaningfully contribute to decision-making. In 2004 this situation changed radically. Explanations include the role of intermediaries between scientists, stakeholders and decision-makers and new legislation. Scientists could enhance the chances of knowledge utilisation both by creating a more open science–policy interface and by reframing the policy problems at issue. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]