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The combination of energy hubs with advanced information and communication technology has resulted in the creation of an intelligent system referred to as a smart energy hub (SEH). The implementation of the SEH has facilitated the enhancement of the entire energy distribution system by enabling a two-way exchange of energy and information between utility providers and consumers. This has resulted in a system that is secure, efficient, and dependable. The significance and visibility of big data in the SEH are evident as a result of the growing accumulation of data quantities. A wide range of equipment and software work together to collect and use energy data. This includes tools used by both energy providers and customers, like smart meters, software for billing, and various monitoring and control systems. Additionally, sensors, computers, and communication networks play a crucial role in collecting and transmitting this data across the energy grid. Hence, big data plays a crucial role in the development of an enhanced SEH. This paper presents an introduction to the notion of SEH and its associated concepts, as well as the function of big data in the context of SEH. It also discusses the obstacles that big data encounters in the SEH domain and explores the potential opportunities that big data offers for SEH.

Based on system theory and the configuration perspective, this study uses the panel data-based qualitative comparison (PD-QCA) method in R and the panel data of the energy systems of China and the ‘Belt and Road’ countries from 1998 to 2020 to analyze the driving factors that affect the green development of energy systems in various countries and the configuration effect on the vertical axis of time and its synergistic promotion path. The research results show that： (1) the driving factors for the green development of the energy systems in various countries are characterized by multiple synergies and the same goals. Factors such as the energy supply side, demand side and basic development level cannot be the necessary conditions for the green development of the energy structure alone, and it is necessary to give full play to the synergy among various factors; (2) in the sufficiency analysis, seven configuration paths are found for collaboratively driving the green development of the energy system, which can be further refined into energy supply-driven, supply-demand-driven, demand-technology-driven and supply-demand-technology-driven paths; (3) capital input, the labour supply level, government support, technological innovation and the environmental regulation level constitute the core driving factors of the green development of energy systems, and there is a potential substitution relationship between capital input and environmental regulation levels.；(4) In the temporal dimension, the Chow breakpoint test verified that the countries along the “Belt and Road Initiative” had a sense of green development to energy after 2013; in the spatial dimension, the implementation effects of each collaborative path showed obvious regional applicability differences.

The Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) is at a pivotal juncture in its energy development, facing significant challenges such as increasing emissions and an unreliable energy supply that hampers economic progress. This study assesses the potential for integrating diverse renewable energy (RE) sources into the CEMAC grid, specifically focusing on river hydro, dam hydropower, onshore wind, and solar photovoltaics. Using the EnergyPlan tool, we conduct a dynamic one-year simulation to model energy dispatch on monthly and hourly scales. The modelling result indicates that achieving a 100 % electricity access in the CEMAC region by 2030 will require an annual electricity demand of 8.59 TWh. If this demand is fully met by natural gas (1143 MW), it will result in about 3.75 Mt of carbon emissions. The result shows that by implementing a mix of these renewable technologies in the proposed integrated grid system, the CEMAC region could reduce its carbon emissions by up to 48.7 % relative to using a single RE source in the grid, with annual renewable electricity production of 4.19 TWh/year. Also, by maximising the RE potential from each CEMAC region, there is 49 % RE integration in the proposed integrated grid, with the highest RE share from hydro. This study quantitatively shows that the proposed synchronized regional grid incorporating these renewable sources could enhance electricity reliability and further reduce emissions in the CEMAC region. This research also highlights the transformative potential of RE in achieving sustainable and cost-effective energy solutions for CEMAC, setting a roadmap towards a resilient energy future by 2050.

The objective of the research is to determine the integration of renewable energy systems with the role of financial innovation, renewable energy intensity, energy transition and environmental regulation in China. To estimate the findings, the study has collected the empirical data from 1990 to 2021. The study uses correlation analysis, slope endogeneity analysis, cross-sectional dependency, unit root analysis, Westerlund co-integration analysis, methods of moments quantile regression, long-run estimation analysis, 2SLS analysis and sensitivity analysis. The findings reveal that the energy transition from fossil fuels and renewable energy enhances the integration of renewable energy systems in China, and it significantly depends upon regulatory compliance. Endorsing it, the study suggests prudent and collaborative policy recommendations for compatibility with financial industry collaboration for renewable energy strategy to achieve net zero. The study extends the implications for practitioners that were aligning renewable energy systems with financial innovation, and regulatory compliance is crucial to ensure renewable energy transition, energy generation optimization, and climate goals for zero carbon. The novelty of the research is presented in a comprehensive analysis of inquiry, offering detailed insights and actionable ways forward for policymakers and industry experts.

The integration of Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) within energy utility systems promises significant improvements in efficiency, service delivery, and sustainability. However, this integration introduces complex ethical and privacy challenges that necessitate thorough examination. This review systematically explores these challenges, employing a comprehensive literature search across multiple databases, including Web of Science and Scopus. Key inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to select relevant studies. This review provides a detailed overview of privacy concerns, data security issues, social acceptance, equity considerations, and regulatory frameworks. This review highlights the need for advanced privacy-preserving techniques, robust Privacy by Design (PbD) strategies, and adaptive regulatory frameworks to address these challenges. Additionally, the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and the impact on vulnerable populations are emphasized. Our findings aim to guide future research, policy development, and stakeholder decision-making, ensuring the responsible and equitable deployment of AMI technologies.

Industrial parks are significant consumers of energy, contributing to global carbon emissions and intensifying the need for strategic interventions to meet carbon reduction and energy efficiency goals. In China, the Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) model has been adopted to advance the development of Integrated Energy Services (IESs) within these parks. This paper analyzes 23 Chinese government policy documents to explore the key stakeholders in park-based IESs, particularly the central role of energy companies in shaping collective decision-making processes. The study highlights how business models, including financial investment, offline and digital services, and innovative practices, have evolved under the REITs framework to drive the development of IESs and foster collaboration among stakeholders.

Cities are facing the dilemma of fulfilling energy service demands for their rapidly growing population while also working towards climate mitigation efforts. City energy planning is essential to deal with this dilemma. Thus, this study explores the role of city energy plans on future cost-efficient energy systems. A technology-rich cost-optimization model was developed using TIMES with intra-sectoral and inter-sectoral interactions and applied to the Gothenburg energy system. The model outcomes are investigated with the application of policy-driven scenarios and further tested under system uncertainties and price sensitivities identified using a participatory approach. Heating sector developments include DH production based on biomass CHP and heat pumps combined with improved building energy efficiency. Cost-efficient transport sector developments show a rapid deployment of biofuel vehicles, followed by increasing electrification later in the time horizon. With the applied uncertainties, different cost-optimal district heat production mixes and heating supply solutions are observed, providing alternative planning strategies. The model results also signify competition of biomass and electricity among sectors in their development pathways. The modeling outcomes enable decision-makers to assess various energy systems transition strategies from a long-term perspective.

Biogas technology offers a sustainable and eco-friendly solution for addressing energy needs, particularly in rural areas. Despite its potential benefits, the adoption of biogas technology in rural Limpopo, South Africa, remains limited. This paper critically examines the factors hindering its uptake. Using an exploratory approach (Qualitative study), data were gathered through interview guide, field surveys, literature reviews, and expert opinions. The analysis indicates that while biogas is a superior thermal option for household energy crises, several challenges need resolution. Key obstacles include ineffective strategies for promoting biogas in Limpopo. Understanding stakeholder perspectives—such as government bodies, local communities, and private enterprises—is crucial for developing strategies to increase biogas use. Necessary interventions include training, capacity-building, and educational awareness initiatives in rural areas to boost adoption. The financial sector's role in renewable energy is critical, especially as cleaner fuels gain attention. Despite its significant benefits in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing household energy security, biogas technology's acceptance and use remain low.

Energy efficiency in buildings is an essential aspect of sustainable development and efforts to mitigate climate change. Integrated energy management has the capacity to greatly improve energy efficiency at several levels, but it requires the sharing and analysis of energy performance data from various stakeholders. This study explores the various components of improving energy efficiency in buildings by combining and analysing the important factors highlighted in previous studies. It gives a comprehensive examination of the development of stakeholder theory and presents a concise overview of the existing literature on stakeholder engagement in the field of energy efficiency. The research emphasises the importance of stakeholders considering a number of criteria to ensure the successful implementation and sustainable profitability of energy-efficient solutions, given the complex nature of energy management and the participation of multiple potential stakeholders. This study provides realistic recommendations to stakeholders for the effective selection of these factors, grounded in a comprehensive review of the existing literature. Moreover, the study emphasises the diverse challenges and limitations linked to stakeholder involvement in the energy efficiency industry, pinpointing crucial topics for future investigation and enhancement.

While electricity-based energy communities (ECs) have received significant scientific attention, heat-based ECs have not gotten the attention they deserve. This paper builds upon the hypothesis that ECs could be a lever to increase the adoption rates of district heating and thus contribute significantly to decarbonise the heating sector. In order to unleash this presumed potential and close a research gap, a conceptual planning framework is introduced, encompassing EC-tailored heat infrastructure planning and cost sharing mechanisms to distribute the financial burden between individual participants based on transparent criteria. For the efficient and EC-suitable planning of a district heating grid, a shortest path problem is solved using Dijkstra’s algorithm. To address the issue of distributing investment costs among EC participants, eight different cost sharing scenarios are developed. These distinguish between costs for heat generation devices and costs for the heating grid, the latter being further sub-categorised into grid lines on the properties of participating parties and common/third property. The developed framework is then applied to a case study of eight residential buildings and three heat generation sites in a city area. Thereby it is found that the cost variance between different cost sharing scenarios lies between 19.1% and 42.6%. From converting heat infrastructure costs per property to annuities for a time horizon of 30 years, it can be concluded that such investments could remain a significant hurdle for private building owners unless suitable investment incentives are proposed by policy decision makers.

The pressing global challenge of climate change necessitates a concerted effort to limit greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. A critical pathway is to replace fossil fuel sources by electrification, including transportation. While electrification of light-duty vehicles is rapidly expanding, the heavy-duty vehicle sector is subject to challenges, notably the logistical drawbacks of the size and weight of high-capacity batteries required for range, as well as the time for battery charging. This Perspective highlights the potential of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles as a viable alternative for heavy-duty road transportation. We evaluate the implications of hydrogen integration into the freight economy, energy dynamics, and CO2 mitigation, and envision a roadmap for a holistic energy transition.Our critical opinion presented in this Perspective is that federal incentives to produce hydrogen could foster growth in the nascent hydrogen economy. The pathway that we propose is that initial focus on operators of large fleets that could control their own fueling infrastructure. This opinion was formed from private discussions with numerous stakeholders during the formation of one of the awarded hydrogen hubs if they focus on early adopters that could leverage the hydrogen supply chain.

China's status as the world's largest energy consumer highlights its pivotal role in global energy consumption and the urgency of enhancing its energy efficiency and renewable energy development. This study evaluates the influence of environmental regulations on green economic growth in China, with a focus on renewable energy and energy efficiency, from 2000 to 2023 across 30 provinces. Using the Metafrontier-Global-SBM super-efficient DEA model, the research measures green economic development through the lens of energy efficiency. An enhanced fuzzy comprehensive assessment gauges the stringency of environmental regulations. To explore non-linear impacts, regional spillover, and feedback effects, a spatial econometric model was applied. The results reveal a U-shaped non-linear relationship between environmental regulations and green economic growth, with significant spatial feedback and regional spillover effects. Environmental regulations are also shown to have a substantial positive influence on the development of renewable energy, a critical driver of green economic growth. Policy implications suggest that strengthening environmental regulations could accelerate renewable energy adoption and foster sustainable economic growth across regions in China.

The catastrophic impacts of climate change and the ever-increasing energy demand have spurred the rapid development of microgrids in recent decades. This paper addresses the evolving field of microgrid systems, focusing on performance evaluation, which is a subject of great academic interest. To augment existing knowledge, our study presents an overview and a thorough analysis of microgrid performance evaluation. The evaluation encompasses two primary themes: bibliometric analysis and thematic quantification. Utilizing a targeted search of the Scopus database in January 2024, we identified relevant articles between 2015 and 2024, resulting in 3932 relevant publications. A subsequent screening process narrowed the selection to the top 200 papers based on citations, and a detailed full-text analysis further refined our sample to 189 articles. Bibliometric research reveals patterns in the dynamics of publications, productive authors, active journals, geographical distribution and collaboration, and key subject categories. Additionally, we present a network analysis of co-authorship patterns among countries, frequently used keywords, and the most cited articles. We also examined the policy citations of the selected articles. Thematic quantification of selected papers systematically categorizes content into various themes, comprising frequently employed sources/renewable energy resources, control techniques, common bus and load types, types of studies and themes, and microgrid locations. Our findings offer valuable insights into the current landscape of this continually evolving field, shedding light on trends and providing recommendations for future research directions.

This study presents an innovative framework to examine the interplay between foreign direct investment and economic development from 1996 to 2021. Using the Panel NARDL approach, our study provides an empirical framework for exploring these complex relationships. We enhance the reliability of our results by integrating additional methodologies, such as augmented mean group and common correlated effects mean group. A decline in carbon emissions is commonly hypothesized to be correlated with economic expansion, foreign direct investment inflows, advancements in renewable energy, and implementation of environmental technologies. On the contrary, detrimental disturbances have the potential to result in protracted ecological deterioration, especially in situations where there are setbacks in economic expansion and foreign direct investment. It is worth noting that although short-run and long-run coefficients exhibit comparable directional trends, there are discrepancies in their magnitudes and levels of statistical significance. This sophisticated comprehension empowers countries such as China, among others, to allocate resources strategically towards sustainable energy initiatives, promoting a systematic approach that prioritizes the adoption of renewable energy, advancements in technology, attraction of foreign investment, and transformation of structures.

Saudi Arabia, as part of its Saudi Green Initiative, has announced its goal to achieve net zero green-house gas emissions by 2060. This ambitious target underscores the nation's dedication to addressing climate change. However, there is a significant gap in comprehensive analysis regarding the long-term effects of Saudi Arabia's climate policies and their collective contribution towards the net-zero objective. This study endeavors to bridge this gap through a detailed examination using the GCAM-KSA, a specialized version of the Global Change Analysis Model tailored for Saudi Arabia, employing a multi-sectoral methodology that integrates economic, energy, and land use systems within a coherent framework to assess the impact of climate policies on GHG emissions. Our analysis reveals that reaching net-zero GHG emissions by 2060 is a complex challenge requiring concerted efforts across all sectors of the economy. While transitioning to low-carbon electricity and improving energy efficiency offer considerable emission reductions, fully decarbonizing the industrial and transportation sectors poses a significant hurdle. Our findings suggest that Saudi Arabia must triple its emission reduction commitments in its next Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) update to align with its 2060 net-zero goal. Early action and increased ambition could avoid the chances of getting locked into the high emission assets and give enough time to transform the energy system. Furthermore, the adoption and integration of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies are identified as crucial for offsetting residual emissions, especially in sectors that might continue to rely on fossil fuels.

Growing research interests in energy service companies (ESCOs) has led to an increase in published research spanning the past decade. However, attempts to map global ESCO-related research have been sparse. The aim of this paper is to map the trends in ESCO, to appraise the state of the field in global ESCO research, and to identify current research gaps. This is achieved by conducting a systematic literature review and qualitative analysis of recently published research papers. The study uses bibliographic, co-citation, and keyword analysis to identify recent trends in global ESCO research. The results show that the aspects of ESCO that most studies have focused on are business models, market development, barriers, and drivers of ESCO, stakeholders in ESCO, energy performance contracts, and risk management in ESCO. In addition, the study identifies two main research gaps in ESCO research. These are public-private partnerships in ESCO programs and the development of a harmonised measurement and verification method for energy savings as the research gaps in ESCO studies. The outcomes of this study would be useful for understanding current developments in global ESCO research and to guide the next frontier in the subject.

This study emphasizes the acceleration of clean energy (CE) adoption through financial inclusion (FI), particularly in the context of the rapid expansion of the BRICS economic cooperation alliance and its contribution to addressing environmental challenges. Specifically, this research assesses the impact of FI on the upward mobility of clean energy transition using annual panel data from 2004 to 2022. Utilizing a comprehensive set of pre-estimation techniques, this study employs the newly established Panel non-linear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (P-NARDL) model for empirical analysis, supplemented by robust estimation methods. The findings reveal that various dimensions of FI, including financial accessibility, financial depth, financial efficiency, and financial stability, significantly influence the progression from nonrenewable energy sources to clean energy consumption. This study extends the examination to assess both the aggregate and disaggregated relationships among the variables. Using causality estimation, it identifies the presence of both bidirectional and unidirectional causality between the FI indices and CE. These findings offer practical policy implications for developing financial resources to accelerate the adoption of CE, thereby addressing the environmental challenges faced by the BRICS economies.

This study conducted a macro, meso, and micro index decomposition analysis of energy consumption in Ghana from 2013 to 2020, highlighting the roles of local (e.g., power crisis) and global (e.g., COVID-19) shocks, as well as energy policy initiatives on technical efficiency improvement. We found that technical efficiency improvements varied at different times of the implementation period of energy policy initiatives and across various macro, meso, and micro-sectors of the economy. Technical efficiency improvement varied significantly across these sectors but worsened much more in service sector during periods of local and global shocks. Additionally, the importance of activity, structural, and intensity effects differed over time and across the macro, meso, and micro-sectors of the economy. We discuss the policy implications of these findings.

This research evaluates the impact of investing in cleaner bonds on funding clean energy initiatives, pivotal for sustainable economic recovery. The study seeks to assess the efficacy of cleaner bonds in fostering environmentally friendly projects and propelling economic growth and applies fuzzy analytical hierarchy process to examine the findings. Findings suggest that cleaner bonds potentially increase clean energy expenditures by an average growth rate of 4.9 % per year, significantly enhancing economic resilience. Additionally, these bonds are shown to accelerate the revitalization of green economies by approximately 17 % annually. The research underscores the role of energy performance contracts as viable alternatives to conventional project financing, through the application of various modelling tools and fuzzy analyses. It also discusses the strategic allocation of public and private funds into cleaner bond investments to accelrate economic sustainability and energy conservation. This study highlights the essential nature of cleaner bonds for entities and environmental groups aiming to secure funding for long-term projects, stressing the importance of expanding the sustainable economy through green bond issuances for eco-friendly and energy-efficient developments. Furthermore, the research recommends implications for stakeholders to diligently consider the legal aspects associated with these investments.

This study analyses the development of photovoltaic (PV) systems in Saudi Arabian buildings, assessing their performance, energy efficiency, economic feasibility, and hybrid PV-battery configurations. Key factors include electricity tariffs, fossil fuel costs, levelized cost of energy (LCOE), and technology selection. The research examines obstacles, design complexities, and energy losses in PV deployment, assessing economic and environmental impacts within the regulatory framework. This work investigates the integration of energy efficiency, financial feasibility, and environmental considerations, offering a strategic roadmap for expanding distributed PV systems within an emerging local policy framework. The findings indicate that regular performance monitoring is crucial, particularly in arid conditions. Semi-annual maintenance is effective in detecting early failures and extending the system's lifespan, while bi-weekly cleaning enhances cost efficiency and energy savings in arid climate areas. The main findings indicate that initial rooftop PV utilisation rates range from 21 % to 49 %, with energy savings differing by building type: 16–21 % for campuses and 43 % for residential buildings, depending on the mitigation of rooftop obstacles and the dynamic of electrical self-consumption. Furthermore, proper design and maintenance can improve the performance ratio to 77.00%–84.27 %. Likewise, economic feasibility hinges on cost and energy yield, with a mean LCOE of $0.0445/kWh. This work brings an innovative perspective to scholarly discourse by exploring the potential of distributed solar energy in Saudi Arabia, thereby supporting further research contributions.

Accelerating the greening and digital transformation of the energy industry to enhance energy efficiency is pivotal for constructing a new energy system. The high-quality development of the energy sector necessitates the support of emerging financial forces. This study utilizes panel data from 279 prefecture-level cities spanning from 2011 to 2021, employing mediation and moderation models to verify the synergistic impact of digital finance and green finance on energy efficiency. Findings indicate that the synergy between digital finance and green finance enhances energy efficiency. Mechanism analysis reveals that this synergy promotes energy efficiency through advancements in green and digital technology innovations. Climate policy uncertainty positively moderates the process by which digital finance and green finance synergistically improve energy efficiency, enhancing the intermediary effects of digital and green technologies. Environmental regulations similarly exert positive moderation on the joint impact of digital finance and green finance on energy efficiency, yet their effects vary heterogeneously, with market-based environmental regulatory tools demonstrating superior policy outcomes. Moreover, the impact of the synergy between digital finance and green finance on energy efficiency exhibits heterogeneity across geographic regions, development timelines, resource endowments, and policy trial effects.

Practicing low carbon city (LCC) is the key strategy for reducing carbon emissions in China. Policy instruments are important tools to guide LCC practice. Most existing studies failed to demonstrate the performance of LCC policy instruments in China. This study analyzes the lessons and experiences of Chinese cities for implementing LCC from the policy instrument perspective. This study developed a comprehensive two-dimensional analytical framework to classify policy instruments for LCC based on considerations of both diversity and abundance. Empirical analyses were conducted using data collected from 35 sample cities in China spanning the period from 2006 to 2020. The empirical findings reveal significant heterogeneity in the implementation of LCC policies across Chinese cities with varying levels of economic development. This research draws a holistic picture of LCC policy instruments in China, which can provide important references for governors to formulate targeted low-carbon policies.

This study explores the policy process in the Namibian Electricity Supply Industry in relation to the development of the Modified Single Buyer market model. The research employs the Advocacy Coalition Framework as a theoretical framework wherein actors within a policy subsystem are conceptualized as forming advocacy coalitions based on shared beliefs and engaging in coordinated efforts over time to influence policy direction. The analysis has uncovered the existence of two prominent coalitions: the progressive coalition is advocating for market liberalisation, while the conservative coalition is seeking to preserve the status quo and resist the adoption of the new electricity market model. The study concludes that powerful actors in the Electricity Supply Industry, although equipped with enormous economic resources and strong political ties, could not prevent the regulator from implementing comprehensive changes in the electricity sector. However, the conservative coalition has managed to negotiate for a phased implementation of the policy to ensure minimal disruption in the industry and to guarantee the security of the electricity supply in the long run. The phased implementation also allows sufficient time for this coalition to realign their business strategies within the new regulation policy and maintain their status as relevant and critical actors.

Given the recent slowdown in EV adoption rates in many countries despite decreasing battery prices, a better understanding the relationship between battery and EV prices is critical for industry and policymakers. We fill this gap in the literature by assessing to what extent ongoing increases in EV battery capacities have increased EV prices, and how this compares with actual EV battery prices. Specifically, we use fixed effects regression analysis to investigate the responsiveness of EV list prices to changes in battery capacity over time, finding evidence that increases in battery capacity led to increases in EV prices that are substantially greater than estimated EV battery costs over our sample. This suggests that automakers may be overcharging consumers for EV batteries and that recent decreases in battery prices are not fully benefiting consumers. This, in turn, suggests that EV prices have been higher than they otherwise could have been, which may have led to slower EV adoption in recent years.

This study examines the asymmetric effects of material resource efficiency (MRE), energy productivity (EP), and environmental technology (ENT) on environmental sustainability (ES) in Algeria from 1990/Q1 to 2022/Q4. Using a nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag model (NARDL), we find that both positive and negative shocks to both MRE and ENT contribute to ES, highlighting their effectiveness. Interestingly, positive EP shocks have a stronger mitigating effect compared to negative shocks. This suggests a magnified benefit during periods of efficiency gains. Additionally, asymmetric causality analysis verifies a causal link between MRE, EP, ENT, and ES. Given these results, it is recommended that Algerian policymakers should prioritize investments in MRE and ENT while emphasizing policies that enhance EP due to its magnified benefit on ES. Asymmetric policy responses for green practices alongside alignment with SDGs 7, 8, 12 and COP-28 objectives will optimize Algeria's ES.

Renewable energy (RE) is pivotal for achieving a net-zero future, with energy storage systems essential for maximizing its utility. This study introduces a modeling framework that simulates large-scale RE deployment in Taiwan, emphasizing hydrogen as a primary storage medium. Utilizing hourly time steps, the model assesses various energy generation and storage configurations to demonstrate the technical feasibility of meeting Taiwan's 2050 net-zero target, which calls for a 60 % RE share primarily through solar and wind resources. However, achieving this target and the ambitious goal of 100 % RE penetration requires substantial enhancements in both generation capacity and storage solutions. The research evaluates the economic impacts by analyzing the levelized cost of energy (LCOE), revealing that optimal configurations, such as a wind capacity of 30 GW with a 5 % minimum capacity factor constraint on electrolyzers, significantly reduce LCOE to $0.176/kWh, underscoring the cost-effectiveness of hydrogen storage compared to battery alternatives in large-scale settings. The study underscores the necessity for ongoing investigations into replacing thermal power plants and maintaining grid stability amidst high RE penetration. To fully harness Taiwan's RE potential and contribute to global sustainability, effective deployment of hydrogen storage will require robust stakeholder support, continual technological advancements, and enabling policies. This framework, while tailored to Taiwan's power system, offers insights applicable to various global contexts.

Modern smart grids typically combine physical and communication networks for efficient information exchange and innovative applications. Aligned with digitalization and advancements in smart grids, the integration of photovoltaic (PV) systems comprises a variety of regulatory and technological aspects. However, no previous study has conducted an extensive and systematic analysis of the PV-grid integration framework, particularly for one country. To fill this gap, this paper uses Germany as an example to present a comprehensive, state-of-the-art analysis of integrating distributed PV systems into smart grids, focusing on the regulation and technical implementation of the German Smart Meter Infrastructure and PV control interfaces. Starting from a standardization perspective, this analysis utilizes the Smart Grid Architecture Model to identify crucial roles, components and processes specifically in Germany. Furthermore, it outlines the current implementation of PV integration into distribution networks at a national level. The results of this study show the overall complexity of PV integration in the smart grid context, confirm the feasibility of the German integration approach, and highlight the necessity of deploying standardized information models and communication technologies. These key findings can help market participants with different roles to identify potential technical bottlenecks or other critical points in the regulation and technical implementation. For instance, the proposed in-depth analysis framework provides an orientation for characterizing the PV integration or, more generally, the grid integration scenario of renewables in other countries.

This article provides a comprehensive framework for the studies of aged assets. All the studies conducted until the end of 2023 in managing aged assets have been summarized and categorized in the framework and model proposed in this article. The proposed comprehensive framework model shows research gaps and a road map can be developed. Aging asset management studies are categorized into aging detection, utilization of aging assets, resilience of asset life, outages caused by aging assets, and operator. This way, we can focus on the methods and applied studies subjects in each sub-section separately. The collection of studies and articles in this paper has been conducted using the Scopus database, and at the end, bibliometric maps are provided.

It is necessary to warrant the long-term viability of the energy policy for sustainable economic growth. However, certain factors exist that can create a threat to energy policy. In this essence, the current analysis explores the impact of EPU (economic policy uncertainty) and financial sector development on fossil fuel energy, renewable energy (REC), and total energy (EGY). The empirical analysis utilized the CS-ARDL model and focused on a sample comprising G7 economies. The robustness of analysis was examined by employing fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) technique. The estimated coefficients outline the significant negative impact of all main explanatory variables on fossil fuel energy and total energy and EGY in the long run and a significant negative impact on renewable energy in the short run. The findings further demonstrate the significant positive impact of financial development on fossil fuel energy and total energy and the significant negative relationship between financial development and renewable energy. Particularly, the analysis discloses the moderating role of financial development in the EPU-energy policy nexus. It is advised to policy officials that they should enhance the cooperation between the financial sector and the energy sector for the success of energy policy and for responding to the uncertain economic situation. This study robust the empirical findings of studies exploring the EPU-energy nexus and extends the literature by pointing out the moderating role of FCD.

China's energy transition is a pivotal component of global efforts to combat climate change. This study identifies the synergistic effects of key factors driving this transition, including social-technology-economic, policy, investment, governance indicators. Asymmetric nexus impacts are explored by using quantile-on-quantile regression (QQR) method. Further, the synergistic effects of key drivers on China's energy transition are examined by model 1–4. The findings show that reconciling the tradeoffs of reducing coal emissions and promoting clean energy are crucial for China's energy transition. Urban growth, environmental taxes, financial development, and strong environmental governance and institutional quality significantly support these efforts, but show different synergistic effects scenarios. These findings also reinforce the need for a more inclusive response to China's energy sustainability challenges, in particular, coordinated policies and strategies in coal-reliant industrial sectors are critical for a successful energy transition.

I assessed energy efficiency performance and investigated transition tendencies for economies at different development levels. I found that energy efficiency performance is tied to the level of economic development, with developed economies exhibiting higher performance than developing economies. Furthermore, developed economies are more likely than developing countries to transition out of a low energy-efficient (LEE) state. Consequently, achieving higher energy efficiency (HEE) status is expected to be highly sustainable in the short-, medium-, and long-term for developed countries. However, for similar achievements, I found moderate sustainability in the medium-to long-term for upper-middle-income countries and higher unsustainability in the medium-to long-term for lower-middle-income countries. Addressing the gap in the global energy efficiency system requires a ‘big push’ investment in energy efficiency, particularly in developing countries, in addition to implementing a broad policy overhaul aimed at eliminating or reducing market barriers and inefficiencies in energy efficiency.

In the context of Europe's efforts towards decarbonization, this paper introduces a novel framework for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs), validated with multiple case studies from Italy's practice. Drawing on established concepts and an extensive literature review, the framework identifies key pillars supporting its model. The paper delineates the essential features defining the conceptual model of RECs, offering a process-oriented perspective. This model serves as a tool to assess the success of existing RECs comprehensively and provides a structured pathway for the development of new projects across different countries, fostering replication within communities. An overarching framework is presented as a solution to enhance the effective utilization of renewable energy sources. Buildings, and the communities of people who live in them are considered primary energy consumers and direct beneficiaries of a REC framework. Consequently, an original pathway for the mass renovation of buildings located in highly populated areas, from the energy sources perspective, is provided.

There are large gaps between the costs and potentials of emissions reductions estimated by technology bottom-up assessments and those estimated by integrated assessment models (IAMs). This study estimates the costs and potentials by sector and technologies in 2030 and 2050 using a technology-rich IAM. The estimated costs and potentials are largely consistent with the medium range of the IAM assessments of the sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). However, larger emission reduction potentials are estimated through the technology bottom-up assessments in the IPCC report. The gaps, approximately 6–17 GtCO2/yr in 2030 under carbon prices of 100 USD/tCO2, arise mainly from differences in the treatment of several hidden costs, and costs for variable renewable energy, such as solar photovoltaic and wind power, arise from considerations of grid integration costs. To recognize the gaps and implement better policies to achieve deep emissions reductions, it is necessary to understand the hidden costs and systems costs, including the grid integration costs, and to consider opportunities for limiting the costs.

The Archimedes Screw Turbine (AST) is an innovative type of hydroelectric power plant that can be particularly useful in locations with very low-head sites (less than 10 m head). Compared to alternative hydroelectric turbines like Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan, the AST can provide a clean renewable energy source that is safer for fish and other aquatic species. While the AST is not universally superior to these other turbine technologies, it can offer unique advantages in certain low-head applications. Unlike Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan turbines, which typically require greater maintenance, debris collection systems, and continuous design improvements, the AST can operate effectively with fewer of these supporting requirements. To explore the potential of the AST in low-head hydropower generation, the present study conducted a comparative analysis of the AST against Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, bulb, and Vortex turbines. A meta-analysis was performed to synthesize data from various theoretical, experimental, and numerical studies, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, ensuring a rigorous and comprehensive review. The findings demonstrate that the AST can be a viable and advantageous option for power generation in sites with head heights below 10 m, generating between 4 kW and 140 kW of power with flow rates of 1–6 m³/s and efficiencies ranging from 72 % to 94 %. Additionally, this study provides an easy and quick method, along with analytical equations, for estimating the design parameters needed to predict screw power output. However, the suitability of the AST versus other turbines is highly dependent on the specific site characteristics and requirements. The analysis provides insights into the performance, maintenance needs, and environmental impacts of the AST compared to conventional hydroelectric turbines. These insights can inform decision-making on appropriate turbine selection for low-head hydropower projects.

During the last two decades, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have seen their population, economies and energy production growing steeply with a substantial increase in Gross Domestic Product. As a result of this growth, GCC consumption-based carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions increased from 540.79 Metric tons of CO2 equivalent (MtCO2) in 2003 to 1090.93 MtCO2 in 2020. The assumptions and strategies that have driven energy production in the past are now being recast to achieve a more sustainable economic development. The aim of this study is to review and analyze ongoing energy transition strategies that characterize this change to identify challenges and opportunities for bolstering the effectiveness of current strategic orientations. The ensuing analysis shows that since COP26, GCC countries have been pursuing a transition away from carbon-based energy policies largely characterized by the adoption of solar PV with other emerging technologies including energy storage, carbon capture, and hydrogen generation and storage. While as of 2022 renewable energy adoption in the GCC only represented 0.15 % of global installed capacity, GCC countries are making strong efforts to achieve their declared 2030 energy targets that average about 26 % with peaks of 50 % in Saudi Arabia and 30 % in the UAE and Oman. With reference to solar energy, plans are afoot to add 42.1 GW of solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power which will increase 8-fold the current installed renewable capacity (5.1 GW). At the same time, oil and gas production rates remain stable and fossil fuel subsidies have grown in the last few years. Also, there is a marked preference for the deployment of CCUS and utility-scale solar energy technology vs. distributed solar energy, energy efficiency and nature-based solutions. The pursuit of energy transition in the GCC will require increased efforts in the latter and other overlooked strategic endeavors to achieve a more balanced portfolio of sustainable energy solutions, with stronger emphasis on energy efficiency (as long as rebound effects are mitigated) and nature-based solutions. Increased efforts are also needed in promoting governance practices aimed to institutionalize regulatory frameworks, incentives, and cooperation activities that promote the reduction of fossil fuel subsidies and the transition away from fossil fuels.

In this paper we conduct economy-wide scenario simulations to investigate whether and how the wider economic stimulus associated with deploying heat pumps in the UK may help mitigate the macroeconomic and distributional impacts of persistently high electricity and gas prices. Our results show that expansionary processes triggered by producing and installing heat pumps can help offset contractionary pressures associated with higher energy prices. However, outcomes depend on the extent of domestic supply chain content in manufacturing heat pumps, on installation costs to households, on how and where government revenues accrue. Moreover, the relative importance of drivers varies over time. For example, higher purchase and installation costs may support a greater initial stimulus via producer and domestic supply chain gains, despite the greater cost burden on households. However, over time, cost reductions are required to deliver the most favourable economy-wide outcomes.

This study introduces an integrated renewable-penetrated electric power and hydrogen energy system (IRPHS) framework to address the integration challenges of renewable energy sources (RESs) through the development of a hydrogen-based multi-carrier energy system. The IRPHS combines a renewable-penetrated electric power system (RP-EPS) with hydrogen energy system (HES), integrating urban transportation systems (UTSs), and incorporating short and long-term hydrogen storage. By employing scenario-based stochastic programming and the alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM), the study tackles uncertainties of renewable power and complexities of IRPHS problem. The research evaluates benefits of integrated versus stand-alone operation, focusing on flexibility across hydrogen generation, transportation, and storage. Findings highlight cost-efficient hydrogen generation, enhanced efficiency, and economic benefits in RES deployment, particularly with long-term hydrogen storage.

In 2021, the Iberian Electricity Market, which includes Portugal and Spain, experienced a significant increase in electricity prices. On average, prices tripled compared to pre-pandemic levels in 2019, despite stable demand. This trend, though less pronounced in other European markets, has raised concerns about the efficiency and competitiveness of wholesale electricity markets. This study investigates the bidding behavior of non-pumped hydropower plants in the Iberian market, employing a merit order model based on real data from 2019 to 2021. The analysis reveals a clear mismatch between hydropower bid prices and actual production costs. Although this practice is legal, it conflicts with the European Union's goal of promoting fair competition within the internal electricity market.Our findings suggest that aligning hydropower bid prices with 2019 levels could have reduced annual market costs by approximately 2324 million euros under a moderate scenario. This indicates substantial potential for cost savings and improved integration of hydropower. However, this strategy also benefits companies that own these hydropower plants, as they often possess large portfolios and can capitalize on increased market prices through other plants, particularly renewable energy units, which offer electricity at very low prices and have a high likelihood of being dispatched.Furthermore, the study highlights regulatory gaps allowing hydropower plants to price low-cost energy similarly to thermal plants, raising consumer costs and distorting market dynamics. These findings emphasize the need for stronger regulatory oversight and reforms to prevent excessive price inflation by hydropower, which plays a critical role in renewable energy integration and grid stability. Policymakers must ensure fair pricing while compensating hydropower plants for their flexibility and essential contributions to the energy system.

The transition towards clean electricity is central to global decarbonisation. Countless metrics are used to assess national electricity transition efforts, which hinders understanding and comparison between nations or political party pledges. This study instead proposes three simple metrics: clean generation share, gross, and net carbon emissions intensity. It uses them to provide the first evaluation of the 2024 Clean Energy Mission (CEM) proposed by the UK's newly-elected Labour Government, which has strengthened ambition for wind and solar power capacity. We compare the CEM to previous political pledges, finding it could reduce national electricity generation emissions by 17 MtCO2 in 2030, equivalent to a two percentage point increase in the UK's 2030 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). We also use these metrics to compare past efforts and future pledges across the G7 countries, finding that the CEM progresses the UK from having the lowest share of clean electricity in 2010 to the highest by 2030. The UK must increase its pace of clean electricity uptake and decarbonisation by a factor of 1.5–2 to meet its 2030 targets; compared to a factor 4–6 acceleration required by Germany and the US. The paper provides an innovative, simple and replicable framework for assessing the impact of political pledges or national targets for the power sector, and for comparing efforts to decarbonise electricity between countries and over time.

Given the scarcity of freshwater resources, the growing significance of desalination is undeniable. It holds immense potential, particularly in regions grappling with severe water shortages. However, desalination's Achilles heel lies in its voracious energy appetite, requiring roughly ten times more energy than wastewater treatment. Moreover, the prevalent use of fossil fuels in desalination plants poses concerning issues like environmental pollution, fossil fuel depletion, and rising costs. The present study has designed an integrated Water desalination and treatment Network that includes a number of desalination facilities, storage centers, wind farms, and wastewater treatment facilities. The water desalination and treatment network has been structured using a Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model, considering uncertainties in wind power and water demand. Employing a chance constraint probabilistic programming approach, this model ensures robustness and balances conservatism with investment attractiveness. It aims to enhance resilience against fluctuations in wind energy and water demand within the water and energy supply chain network. The study applied this model to optimize the locations of desalination plants, treatment centers, and storage facilities. This integrated model ensures autonomy, eliminating the need for external water and energy sources while reliably meeting regional demands. In the context of the Makran coasts case study, our comprehensive mathematical model demonstrates an optimal allocation with 96.67 % attributed to fixed costs and only 3.33 % to variable costs. Moreover, this model precisely optimizes the locations of two desalination centers, two storage facilities, and ten water treatment centers, effectively managing the need for external water resources. Ultimately, through a rigorous sensitivity analysis, we unveiled that the chance constraint parameters have a significant impact on the variable costs.

Many countries proposed their ambitious climate change targets to address the global warming challenge through accelerating the pace of energy transition towards renewable energy. However, such transition will increase the demand for critical minerals. This paper conducts a thorough bibliometric review of the related literature to offer a holistic understanding on such challenges. First, the definition of climate change target, energy transition and critical mineral are clarified. Second, a systematic bibliometric search and analysis are conducted to identify research trends. It revealed that the number of related publications has grown significantly over the past decade. Then, the most productive countries, institutions, authors, main academic disciplines, the most popular methods and the energy sectors that are most focused in this field are identified. Results show that the entire energy system, wind and solar renewable energies were the most focused energy technologies. Stock-driven Material Flow Analysis (MFA) emerges as the main methodology employed. China and Chinese authors were the most productive in this field. In addition, the hot topics and future directions of publications were identified through dividing keywords into climate change, mineral, and energy. Finally, a mineral-energy-climate knowledge framework is constructed to illustrate the linkage between mineral constraints, climate change and energy transition.

The rising demand for greenhouse cultivation poses a challenge in providing environmentally friendly energy to maintain favorable greenhouse indoor conditions. This research presents an optimization model to identify cost-optimal symbiotic pathways to replace the import of three key greenhouse crops (tomato, cucumber, lettuce) with local greenhouse production. The proposed solutions involve greenhouses that can meet these crops' heat and CO2 demands via industrial symbiosis. Switzerland is investigated as the case study, and the (waste) heat suppliers are municipal solid waste incinerators, cement production plants and biogas plants. Upgrading biomethane production plants are also considered potential CO2 suppliers. The objective is to minimize the discounted cost when replacing 25%–100 % of vegetable imports with local agricultural greenhouses, considering availability of suitable land as well as waste heat and CO2 suppliers. Optimization results suggest prioritizing northeast and west Switzerland for greenhouse development, due to the availability of suitable land and proximity of waste heat and CO2 suppliers. Waste incinerators could provide 50%–70 % of the necessary heat, while Organic Rankine cycle in cement plants could generate 63 % of the electricity of supplementary lighting demand of greenhouses. While tailored for Switzerland, the optimization framework's general formulation can be adapted also to other regions to optimize greenhouses' heat and CO2 demands. The optimization code is provided open source for associated applications.

This study analyzes the determinants of green economic growth in OECD countries, focusing on the role of technological innovation, clean energy adoption, environmental innovation, and political stability. Employing panel data analysis techniques, including Dynamic Seemingly Unrelated Regression (DSUR), Common Correlated Effects Pooled-FM (CUP-FM), and Common Correlated Effects Pooled-BC (CUP-BC), the study examines the asymmetric relationships between these factors and green growth over both the short and long run. The findings suggest that technological innovation significantly influences green growth in OECD nations, with positive and negative shocks in innovation showing distinct impacts on green growth consumption, which emphasizes embracing and expanding green technology to enhance sustainable economic development and minimize environmental damage. Similarly, clean energy adoption plays a crucial role in fostering green economic growth, with positive relationships observed between renewable energy consumption and green growth in the short and long run. Environmental innovation also positively correlates with green growth, highlighting the significance of developing new products and services to manage environmental challenges. Besides, political stability is a critical determinant of green growth, with stable political environments fostering investor confidence and encouraging long-term sustainable investments. The study underlines the complex interplay between these factors, emphasizing the bidirectional causality relationships observed among clean energy adoption, political stability, innovation, and urbanization. These findings underscore the multifaceted nature of sustainable development pathways, highlighting the need for integrated policy approaches to promote green growth agendas. The study contributes to comprehending the factors driving green economic growth in OECD countries and provides insights for policymakers and practitioners seeking to advance sustainability goals. By underlining the importance of technological innovation, clean energy adoption, environmental innovation, and political stability, the study proposes valuable insights into the pathways toward achieving environmentally sustainable and economically viable growth.

Asia, the world's highest emitting region with surging electricity demand, must transition to clean energy sources for sustainable development. Despite significant progress in solar power deployment, its penetration in the electricity mix remains relatively low. This study employs process tracing to compare solar power development in China and Thailand from 2000 to 2023, representing state-driven and society-centered governance approaches. By analyzing data from secondary sources and conducting online stakeholder interviews, we assess the role of energy governance in fostering resilience during the low-carbon transition. We find state-driven governance exhibits resilience in addressing immediate crises, while society-centered governance drives societal transformation towards a low-carbon future. While state-centric governance suits large-scale centralized renewables, society-centered governance is crucial for distributed renewable projects. Path-dependent governance determines how the energy sector takes in niche innovation, and the reinforced governance structure constrains energy resilience given the interaction within and of the sector with other societal actors. The findings provide insights to inform evidence-based policies and interventions for renewable deployment.

The composition of energy consumption is shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. Determining if reducing energy use may increase green factor production (GFP) is thus crucial. This study, which examines data from 2013 to 2019, indicates that GFP is impacted by both the Robotics and natural resource markets. It conducts a comprehensive analysis of Robotics's impact on the development of green economies using China as a case study and a suitable mathematical model, namely a static panel model (SPM). By applying robotics analytical powers and predictive modelling, the research sheds light on how economic growth and environmental preservation might be balanced, or “green growth.” The magazine aims to find synergies that support the incorporation of AI-driven solutions into policy frameworks, promoting a shift toward more environmentally sustainable practices globally by carefully analyzing global economic policies. It has been observed that different industries and development phases have other impacts of AI on carbon intensity. Furthermore, this investigation dissects GFP into its component elements, green efficiency improvement effects, and technological advancement to elucidate how AI influences green economic growth.

In densely populated countries, land competition is a key challenge in light of a growing population and the land-intensive decarbonization of energy supply. We apply an energy system model using linear optimization to Germany as an example for a densely populated and industrialized nation with a high energy demand to show how land competition affects the economics of land-intensive renewable energies. Bioenergy crops are currently cultivated on 6.5% of Germany’s land area. We find that allocating only 6% of the total land to the future energy system, which is even less than the current allocation to bioenergy crops, allows for a system that is close to the cost-minimum that we calculate when not restricting the land area. This 6% of the land area is divided into 4% for photovoltaics (PV), 2% for onshore wind and 0% for bioenergy crops. This would save 15billion€/a (15.1%) relative to the system that matches current political targets for utility-scale PV. For areas exceeding this 6%, we find that the most cost-efficient utilization comes from bioenergy crops, but they only add value to the energy system if there is plenty of land available. The value of land to the energy system is at least twice as high for 0% remaining emissions when compared to the case of 10% remaining green house gas emissions, although both scenarios are separated by less than five years according to current German law. Both our findings underline that considering the value of land as early as possible is necessary when developing state policies that shall lead to cost-efficient renewable energy systems.

The investigation of the impact of energy consumption patterns on peak emissions in China is pertinent and crucial for achieving global climate goals. The study aims to form a forecast of carbon emissions in China and diagnose the achievement of established decarbonization goals based on structural changes in primary energy consumption until 2030. To achieve the goal, the study formed a Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model with the implementation of Markov chains. The obtained research results yield important insights into the influence of various scenarios on carbon emissions in China by the year 2030. Specifically, considering structural transformations, an increase in emissions by 15 % can be anticipated, which is 7 % less than predicted by the classical scenario. Among the proposed scenarios, the Net Zero scenario is deemed the most efficient, where emissions could reach a level of 8509.5 million tons of CO₂. Conversely, the New Momentum scenario proves to be the most precarious, as it entails an escalation in coal usage, leading to a 4 % increase in emissions, amounting to 13264.84 million tons of CO₂. The contribution of this study is the approach to conducting carbon emission projections, which is based on the DSGE model with the implementation of Markov chains. This makes it possible to assess the adequacy of the set targets for carbon reduction based on alternative scenarios, which in crisis conditions can overlap and thus complement each other.

In energy system transformation studies, the assumption of linearly rising CO2 prices is common and based on the decreasing issued European allowances (EUA). The actual auction price for allowances is influenced by market dynamics, resulting in non-linear variations in CO2 prices due to the possibility of banking allowances. This study explores the impact of non-linear CO2 price trajectories on the European electricity market. Various scenarios, such as increasing prices with the market interest rate, early price peaks, collapse, or fluctuations, are examined until 2030. The study quantifies the effects on power plant investments, profitability, consumer costs, and government revenues. The findings reveal that early and high price signals lead to an earlier transition with 7 % more wind power plants but at 4 % higher costs. Conversely, lower initial prices delay power plant investments in wind power plants by 6 % and result in 21 % higher emissions. Compensation for climate impact costs can yield a positive cost-benefit analysis in scenarios with early and high price signals when emissions are avoided through mechanisms like the Market Stability Reserve (MSR).

This study examines the impact of green economic growth and renewable energy on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The rationale for the study comes from the background that with a fast rate of growing population, there is a high pressure on natural resources, which often leads to resource depletion, being experienced across the globe. This study utilises panel data analysis consisting of 37 SSA countries that are members of the Official Development Assistance (ODA). Data was obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 2005–2022. To control for endogeneity, the study applies the system Generalised Method of Moments (GMM). The result shows that renewable energy and green economic growth have a positive significant impact on food security, though this impact is asymmetric across SSA sub-regions. On the other hand, industrialisation through its emissions, contributes negatively to food security. The implication is that SSA countries should focus on policies aimed at improving green economic growth and renewable energy consumption; while policies aimed at reducing the inefficient adoption of renewable electricity and discouraging industrialisation aimed at suppressing agricultural practices should be adopted.

Determining transportation routes is of great importance for advancing China-Russian gas cooperation, which has been hanging in the balance. This paper employs a general equilibrium model to assess the congestion cost of diversified gas transmission schemes between China and Russia on domestic long-distance pipelines, which addresses the inherent limitations of exclusively considering transport impacts in the decision-making process. Findings reveal a notable decrease in pipeline congestion incidents for the route integrated with the Shaan-Jing system, thus lending empirical credence to the feasibility of the proposed scenario involving Mongolia. In addition, key routes are defined in this paper based on congestion costs, which emphasize the challenges posed by bilateral gas cooperation to China's long-distance natural gas pipeline network, necessitating a strategic focus on critical pipelines as the top priority of pipeline optimization efforts in the future. This paper provides valuable insights into planning the second China-Russia gas pipeline and the decision-making process for the future development of long-distance pipeline infrastructure.