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Abstract: Climate change mitigation is a dynamic area that, as it is addressed, brings new challenges to other environmental aspects. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) plants are the latest development in a series of environmental controls and have some distinctive features that could potentially lead to other wider environmental problems. Whilst CCS represents a significant step towards cutting greenhouse gas emissions, consideration needs to be given to the potential wider environmental consequences especially in terms of pollutant emissions and local air quality impacts. Challenges remain for existing plants which will need to consider the most cost-effective strategies for installation of CCS plant balanced against managing air quality impacts as dispersion characteristics change. In the case of post-combustion carbon dioxide (CO2) capture technology, which is the focus of this paper, removal of CO2 from the main flue gas stream requires diversion of the flue gas through the CCS process, before it arrives at the exhaust stack. This flue gas stream may be all or part of the total plant flow or for multi-unit plants may be diverted from specific power generation units into the CCS plant before exhausting to atmosphere, either through returning back to the existing stack or through a new dedicated stack. This diversion and subsequent emission in itself poses an engineering challenge. In particular, the integration of the CCS process with the existing plant must also ensure that the diverted flue gas still achieves adequate dispersion as it contains residual levels of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2), despite the fact that the CCS process itself may reduce some of these pollutant levels further as a process by-product. Power plants which incorporate CCS will still be required to adhere to the appropriate pollutant emission limits and ensure effective dispersion to minimise the risk of breaching local air quality standards. This paper draws on experience gained through post-combustion CCS projects and addresses the potential effects of CCS on air quality, in the case of carbon capture retrofits. The findings of this paper are relevant to project developers, power generators and policymakers globally who have an interest in the potential for CCS to provide an emissions abatement option for existing thermal assets in the short and long term. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: ZeroGen Pty Ltd (ZeroGen) recently announced its plan to develop the world’s first commercial-scale 450MW clean coal power plant by 2017 in Queensland, Australia. Since the Queensland Government first announced the project in early 2006, stakeholder engagement activities have been a key priority for ZeroGen. The company understands that stakeholder perceptions, particularly of the safety of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) processes, represent a key challenge to the commercialisation of clean coal technologies. As a result, ZeroGen has developed and implemented an advanced consultation framework to actively engage a wide range of stakeholders to address this challenge. This paper details the consultation framework and outlines the findings of research conducted to assess the perceptions of community leaders where the project’s CCS activities are occurring. The paper confirms that the consultation processes deployed by ZeroGen to date have been successful in overcoming a key challenge to the commercialisation of clean coal technologies involving CCS. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The term ‘capture ready’ has been used by the UK Government when granting licences for power plants. However, the term has not as yet been given an agreed definition. This paper draws on literature on lock-in of large socio-technical systems and on regulation of technology undergoing development. Further, the paper compares some of the versions of the capture readiness concept proposed to date. It also explores capture readiness beyond the minimum requirement of space on the site for capture operations, including integration of capture and power plant, downstream operations, overall system integration and regulation of future retrofitting. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The IEA 2007 World Energy Outlook forecasts that fossil fuels will continue to dominate the energy mix until 2030, including large economies such as the EU, Japan, US and China. A growing concern among many countries is the design o f mechanism s that will finance clean coal technologies and in particular carbon capture and storage projects. To illustrate, it is estimated that the United States will require 170 GW of new coal -fired capacity prior to 2030 with 90% of that being post 2015. Therefore substantial government and private investment into carbon capture and storage (CCS ) projects will be required and m echanisms designed to facilitate that investment. Many organizations are examining this issue including the IEA Clean Coal Centre, IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Clean Coal Power Initiative and the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF). In 2007 and 2008 two expert meetings on financing post-demonstration CCS projects were organised in London and New York by the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme and the IEA Clean Coal Centre, with the support of the World Coal Institute and sponsorship from Chevr on and Rio Tinto. This paper reports back the results of those meetings in regard to identifying the key drivers for financing post-demonstration CCS projects in Europe and North America. This is of particular interest with the restructuring of the USA Fut ureGen Programme as well as the proposed inclusion of CCS within the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) in the future. Different options for financing such projects are explored and compared with a focus on how they could assist in the realisation of commercial CCS projects. In addition, this paper examines the response by the insurance, banking and other financial sectors to the potential investment opportunities CCS projects could provide in dealing with issues such as liability and project investment. Lastly, the paper analyses the knowledge and awareness of CCS technology within the financial community in general. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The BIGCO2 R&D (BIGCO2) Platform is an international collaborative research project aiming at developing several enabling technologies and innovative solutions supporting a large-scale deployment of CO2 capture from power generation and underground storage of CO2. All main routes for CO2 capture are investigated. The project is coordinated by SINTEF Energy Research and the budget of the current project period (2007-2011) is 16 M€. BIGCO2 builds knowledge and technology underpinning demonstration of power generation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) at industrial scale. The project aims at closing critical knowledge gaps in the CO2 chain to enable sustainable power generation from fossil fuels based on carbon capture and underground storage of CO2. BIGCO2 is unique in terms size, diversity, and the fact that it comprises the whole CO2 chain. The project includes extensive international collaborative effort bringing together expertise and research infrastructure of competent research institutes and universities, supported by leading vendors, energy companies, and oil and gas companies. This paper presents the structure, the original objectives and the achievements of BIGCO2. Further, for each research task, the results are analyzed in light of the objectives. Each task leader has analyzed the results in the following context of: originally stated objectives, results, and if the results meet the objectives. The purpose of BIGCO2 is to develop new knowledge to enable power generation with CCS. Tangible objectives are: 90% CO2 capture rate, 50% cost reduction, and a fuel-to-electricity penalty less than 7% compared with state-of-the-art power generation. Partners of the Consortium are: Statoil, GE Global Research, Statkraft, Aker Clean Carbon, Shell, TOTAL, ConocoPhillips, ALSTOM, DLR, TUM, NTNU, CICERO, SINTEF Materials and Chemistry, SINTEF Petroleum Research, and SINTEF Energy Research. The University of Oslo is a subcontractor to the project. Further, BIGCO2 benefits from a strong collaboration between the combustion research facility at Sandia National Laboratories (USA) and SINTEF Energy Research. The main sponsor of BIGCO2 is the Research Council of Norway, with considerable co-funding from the industry partners and Gassnova. The research challenges and approach are extensively presented in . [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The application of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in the power industry is important for reducing man-made CO2 emissions. This paper proposes new ways to categorize the options for mitigation of man-made CO2 emissions and CO2 capture. A detailed description on the ways to capture, transport and store CO2 has been presented. The power penalties and cost can be big challenges to apply CCS to the power industry, while a lot of opportunities exist, such as value added CO2 storage, industrial utilization of CO2 and the development of the carbon trade market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal is China’s primary fuel for power generation and will almost certainly remain so for the foreseeable future. At present China’s installed capacity of power generation plant totals about 900 GW with over 70% of that based on coal. Although major Chinese programmes are in place to improve energy efficiency, increase deployment of renewable energy technologies and increase the installed capacity of nuclear plant, coal-fired power plants will continue to be built in large numbers for many years to come. This paper presents the results of an energy systems analysis exercise using the China MARKAL model under the support of NZEC (China-UK Near Zero Emissions Coal) Initiative, to provide a perspective on the energy technologies that may be deployed in China to 2050 to meet its energy needs. The model also examines the cost and impact of deploying CCS in China by simulating several carbon emission constraint scenarios. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Kyoto Protocol’s flexible mechanisms allow projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions to generate ‘carbon credits’. The most well known of the schemes is the clean development mechanism (CDM), which applies to emission reduction projects in developing and emerging economy countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol. The eligibility of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) technologies within the CDM has been a protracted process. One of the concerns hampering progress relates to the possible market implications of inclusion because of the potentially very large number of certified emission reduction units (CERs) that could be generated from CCS projects, which could potentially destabilize the global carbon market, for example, by depressing global carbon prices due to over-supply relative to demand. Drawing on these concerns, this paper provides a summary of analysis undertaken to assess the potential scale of such effects in both 2012 (the end of first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) and in 2020, with a view to evaluating the legitimacy of concerns in the short- to medium-term. It also provides some views on the potential alternative mechanisms that could evolve post-2012 for incentivizing and financing investments made in CCS technologies in developing and emerging economies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In order to reduce CO2 emissions on a global scale large pilot and demonstration projects that trial new technologies, designs, or construction techniques applicable to full scale plants need to be undertaken. Process Group has designed and built several pilot scale capture plants including one located at the Hazelwood Power Station, which is the largest capture plant on a coal fired power station in Australia. This paper discusses some of the lessons from these pilot plants and presents a new retrofit post-combustion study that investigates carbon capture from a 500 MW power station (nominally 3.7 million tpa CO2) using three solvents with and without heat integration into the steam cycle. Data pertaining to processing 25% of the flue gas from a 500 MW power station (nominally 0.9 million tpa CO2) is also presented. The study found <5% difference between existing solvent processes in terms of overall plant CAPEX and <15% difference in OPEX and that for the end user the most advantageous way to design a capture plant is to ensure that it functions with a wide range of solvents and can be easily adapted for future technology advances. The cost of capture for a 500 MW brown coal power station with non-optimised heat integration was determined to be in the range AUD$53-63/t CO2 avoided, which incorporated an improvement of approximately $8-13/t due to the non-optimised heat integration. The heat integration resulted in modest (5%) energy and cooling duty savings however, with further optimisation performed specific to the given power station and capture plant it is expected that the cost of capture could be further reduced to at or below AUD$50/t CO2 avoided. In situations where cooling water is used exclusively for a full scale capture facility the cooling water usage increased by 85–95%. However, when enhanced heat integration is incorporated this increase is expected to be limited to 75–80% for all technologies analysed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal-to-liquids (CTL) is a process of producing synthetic transportation fuels from coal. The process involves gasification of coal to produce synthesis gas which is then catalytically converted to liquid fuels in a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reactor. A major concern of CTL plants is their emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced as part of the process. A significant fraction of the plant-level CO2 is produced in the gasification process, which needs to be separated before the syngas is fed into the FT reactor. In this paper, CTL processes using two different coal-feeding methods–slurry and dry–are studied for their effect on the performance, emissions and cost of a CTL plant. The slurry-fed and dry-fed systems are modeled based on the commercially available GE and Shell gasifier designs, respectively. Effect of implementing CCS or carbon constraints that impose a price or cost on CO2 emissions is also studied. The potential of the co-production configuration to reduce the overall CO2 emissions by displacing conventional pulverized coal power plants is also investigated. It was found that the process using a dry-feed Shell gasification is more efficient, emits less CO2 and has lower capital and product costs compared to a CTL plant using a slurry-feed GE gasifier. For both the cases, the costs of liquid product from both liquids-only and co-production plants are comparable to the crude oil prices seen in the past 2–3 years. Though co-production plants are much costlier than liquids-only configurations in terms of capital cost, because of the high electricity revenues, the cost of liquid product is lower than that of the liquids-only case, at market prices of electricity. Co-production is also much more efficient than the separate production of liquids and power and, the difference in efficiency increases with the addition of CCS. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper we identify and characterize known and new environmental consequences associated with CO2 capture from power plants, transport by pipeline and storage in geological formations (CCS). The DPSIR framework, describing environmental Drivers, Pressures, States, Impacts and Responses, is used to systematically review environmental impact assessment procedures and scientific literature on CCS. Also, it is investigated whether crucial knowledge on environmental impacts is lacking that may postpone the implementation of CCS projects. The findings of this study are that the capture of CO2 from power plants results in a change in the environmental profile of the power plant. This change encompasses trade-offs and synergies in the reduction of key atmospheric emissions, being: NOx, SO2, NH3, particulate matter, Hg, HF and HCl. The largest trade-offs are found for the emission of NOx and NH3 when equipping power plants with post-combustion capture. Synergy is expected for SO2 emissions, which are low for all power plants with CO2 capture. An increase in water consumption ranging between 32% and 93% and an increase in waste and by-product creation with tens of kilotonnes annually is expected for a large-scale power plant (1 GWe), but exact flows and composition are uncertain. The cross-media effects of CO2 capture are found to be uncertain and not quantified. For the assessment of the safety of CO2 transport by pipeline at high pressure an important knowledge gap is the absence of validated release and dispersion models for CO2 releases due to pipeline failures. There is also uncertainty in estimating the failure rates for CO2 pipelines. Furthermore, uniform CO2 exposure thresholds, detailed dose-response models and specific CO2 pipeline regulation are absent. Most gaps in environmental information regarding the CCS chain are identified and characterized for the risk assessment of the underground, non-engineered, part of the storage activity. This uncertainty is considered to be larger for aquifers than for hydrocarbon reservoirs. Failure rates are found to be heavily based on expert opinions and the doseresponse models for ecosystems or target species are not yet developed. Integration and validation of various sub-models describing fate and transport of CO2 in various compartments of the geosphere is at an infant stage. Concluding, it is not possible to execute a quantitative risk assessment for the non-engineered part of the storage activity with high confidence. Finally, several recommendations have been formulated to deal with the knowledge gaps identified in this study. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy sources such as oil, natural gas, and coal currently account for around 80% of the world’s primary energy consumption. Despite significant investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency, that Canada and others are making, the International Energy Agency (IEA) has forecast that as the global economy continues to grow, fossil fuels will continue to dominate the world’s energy supply for decades. Reconciling the world’s ongoing reliance on fossil fuels with the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is then one of our greatest challenges. Canada is taking this challenge seriously with climate change policies that include enhancing our global leadership in advancing one of the most promising technologies for reducing GHG emissions from fossil fuel use: Carbon capture and storage (CCS). CCS is only one of several technologies that must be deployed and is not a ‘silver-bullet’ for meeting Canada’s target of reducing its GHG emissions by 17% from 2005 levels by 2020. Yet, CCS is one of the only technologies currently available for making emissions reductions from large-scale fossil fuel usage–and, thus, will be a critical component of the technology puzzle for Canada to meet its emissions reduction objectives. Canada has a number of key sectors where the deployment of CCS is needed and there are opportunities to advance the technology. These include coal-fired electricity plants, the oil sands, and natural gas processing (e.g. from the new development of shale gas) -though the opportunity and demand for advancing CCS technology also exists in other sectors such as chemicals, fertilizer, steel making, and cement. Federal and provincial governments in Canada are making substantial investments in CCS, committing upwards of $3 billion in public funding towards seven large-scale fully-integrated CCS demonstration projects. The federal ecoENERGY Technology Initiative announced $151 million for the initial engineering and/or pilot stages of seven potential demonstration projects in 2008. The 2009 federal budget created Clean Energy Fund, which included $610 million for CCS demonstrations. The Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia have also committed funding for demonstrations, in particular $2 billion by Alberta. This public funding will leverage additional investment from industry, for projects that will each capture and store on the order of 1 million tonnes of CO2 per year, coming on-line starting in 2015 or sooner. This paper will provide an overview of Canada’s actions on advancing CCS deployment, with a focus on the CCS demonstration program and current R&D activities in Canada. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, conceptual modeling and numerical simulation of two-phase flow during CO2 injection into deep saline aquifers is presented. The work focuses on isothermal transport and deformation processes in the vicinity of the injection well including hydromechanical failure analysis. Governing differential equations are based on balance laws for mass and momentum completed by constitutive relations for the fluid and solid phases as well as their interactions. Constraint conditions for the partial saturations and the pressure fractions of CO2 and brine are defined. To characterize the stress state in the solid matrix the effective stress principle is applied. The coupled problem is solved using an in-house scientific finite element code, and verified with benchmarks. In terms of application-oriented aspects, we examine the mechanical integrity of a deep saline aquifer during the injection of supercritical CO2. The analysis is conducted with a numerical scheme of the capillary pressure and non-wetting phase pressure for the two-phase flow process. In this study, unidirectional hydromechanical coupling is considered. Caprock stability is monitored in time, referenced to the potential for hydraulic fracture and shear slip along an optimally oriented shear plane for a suite of injection pressures. For reasonable parameter values and the chosen aquifer geometry, significant mechanical failure (and potential breach of integrity) is expected in the shale caprock for all but low injection rates. This indicates that the analysis of the hydromechanical response is crucial for proper selection of injection sites, injection rates, and total storage capacity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In October 2009, the International Energy Agency’s CCS Technology Roadmap was launched at the Carbon Sequestration Leadership forum (CSLF) Ministerial Meeting in London. The Roadmap builds on the IEA BLUE Map scenario that leads to the stabilisation of CO2 emissions at 450 ppm by 2050. Achieving this scenario will require an energy technology revolution involving a portfolio of solutions: greater energy efficiency, increased renewable energy technologies and nuclear power, and the near decarbonisation of fossil fuel-based power generation via carbon capture and storage (CCS). In this scenario CCS contributes almost 20% to the total emissions reductions required in 2050. Recommendations are made in the IEA CCS Roadmap on what is required to achieve this level of deployment not only technically, but also from a financial and regulatory point of view as well as in terms of public engagement and international collaboration, including the sharing of knowledge. This paper looks at progress made against these recommendations in the 12 months since the release of the roadmap. [•] Analysis undertaken by the IEA consistently identifies a significant role for CCS in mitigating global CO2 emissions. IEA analysis suggests that there will be a need to capture and store 10 Gt CO2 per year in 2050, from 3400 projects globally to achieve the BLUE Map emissions reduction targets. [•] Significant progress is being made to launch large-scale demonstration facilities across the globe, with some 80 large-scale integrated demonstration projects identified. As of April 2010, public funding commitments were in the range of USD 26.6 billion to USD 36.1 billion. [•] While 5500 km of CO2 pipelines already exist and further infrastructure development is planned, it is however clear that to enable large-scale deployment of CCS, more joint planning of CO2 transportation infrastructure is required globally. [•] The status and availability of data on CO2 storage varies significantly around the world and is potentially a major constraint to rapid, widespread CCS deployment. In regions with the potential to store large volumes of CO2, a concerted effort will be required to characterise the basins in sufficient detail. [•] Much progress has been achieved in the legal and regulatory area. The first movers in establishing legal frameworks have generally been OECD countries. It is now important that the large emerging economies start developing their legal and regulatory frameworks. [•] Public awareness and acceptance is a key element in making CCS possible. Public concerns are legitimate and require a close dialogue and sharing of information with the local population. While companies developing transport and storage will need to lead on the engagement processes, governments and politicians have a vital role to play. [•] Several initiatives are in place for international dialogue and collaboration on the development and deployment of CCS. [•] While much progress has been made, many challenges still remain if CCS is to deliver at the scale required. The challenges are well-known and require concerted action by industry, governments, international organisations and civil society. Continued political leadership remains absolutely essential. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper is written from the perspective of a national safety regulator who wishes to help enable the new technology of carbon capture and storage (CCS) so that national and global strategic priorities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can be met. Example CCS hazards are discussed. There is a substantial and ever increasing body of information about CCS. This requires proactive knowledge management to understand and prioritise gaps. The process used by the UK HSE is outlined. Examples are given of current gaps in knowledge, including regulatory considerations, guidance and standards related to CCS. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Responding to growing international political interest in the potential of carbon capture and storage (CCS) to contribute to climate change mitigation, multiple CCS demonstration projects of various scales are emerging globally. A fully integrated power-plant with CCS has not yet been demonstrated at scale, and acknowledgement of the scale of learning that still must occur for the technology to advance toward deployment has resulted in calls from multiple constituents for more CCS demonstration projects. Among these demonstration projects, expectations for learning and knowledge-sharing structures vary considerably and attention to different approaches to facilitate learning has been minimal. Through a comparison of the structure, framing and socio-political context of three different CCS demonstration projects, this paper explores the complexity of social learning associated with demonstration projects. Variety in expectations of the demonstration projects’ objectives, learning processes, information sharing mechanisms, public engagement initiatives, financing and collaborative partnerships are highlighted. The comparison shows that multiple factors influence the learning in CCS demonstration projects, including the process of building support for the project, the governance context and the framing of the project justification. This comparative analysis highlights the importance of integrating careful consideration of framing and social learning into CCS demonstration project planning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Doosan Power Systems has adopted an evolutionary approach to the design and implementation of OxyCoal™ technology combining well proven and commercially available components with state-of-the-art advances in technology, and is leading a number of UK Government supported collaborative projects that are developing oxyfuel combustion technology. The “Demonstration of an Oxyfuel Combustion System” OxyCoal 2 project aimed to demonstrate an oxyfuel combustion system of a type and size (40MWt) applicable to new build and retrofit advanced supercritical oxyfuel plant. Following conversion to oxyfuel firing, the Clean Combustion Test Facility (CCTF) became the world’s largest demonstration facility of an oxyfuel combustion system, and since the official opening on 24th July 2009 a test programme has been successfully undertaken to demonstrate the full-scale Doosan Power Systems first generation 40MWt OxyCoal™ burner on air and oxyfuel firing, achieving safe and stable operation across a wide operational envelope and CO2 flue gas concentrations in excess of 75% v/v dry, and up to 85% v/v dry. The OxyCoal 2 project is discussed in the paper and results from testing the full-scale 40MWt OxyCoal™ burner firing bituminous coal in both air and oxyfuel firing operation are presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Geopolymer concrete is being proposed as a potential construction material in carbon capture and storage facilities, in particular the harsh chemical environments found in post-combustion capture solvent columns. Geopolymer concrete is synthesised by reacting industrial wastes (coal fly ash and/or metallurgical slags), with an alkali source to form the binder, blended with aggregates (sand and rocks). In addition to environmental benefits, and utilisation of currently-landfilled fly ashes (landfilled at the rate of several million tonnes p.a. in Australia alone, and hundreds of millions of tonnes p.a. worldwide), geopolymer concrete can provide some significant performance advantages over existing technologies. In particular, the chemical resistance of the geopolymer binder has been highlighted in laboratory testing over a number of years . This paper examines a series of metakaolin, fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag binders. Durability studies, which include leaching and strength retained on exposure to solvents (monoethanolamine, potassium carbonate and distilled water), show high resistance to ethanolamine. Potassium carbonate resistance depends greatly on the formulation used. Porosity is a key factor in overall strength and chemical resistance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The United States and China are the two largest emitters of greenhouse gases in the world and their projected continued growth and reliance on fossil fuels–especially coal–make them strong candidates for the large-scale deployment of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) systems in a greenhouse gas constrained world. Previous work has revealed that both nations have over 1600 large electric utility and other industrial point CO2 sources as well as very large CO2 storage resources on the order of 2000 billion metric tons (Gt) of onshore storage capacity. In each case, the vast majority of this capacity is found in deep saline formations. In both the USA and China, candidate storage reservoirs are likely to be widely accessible with over 80% of these large industrial CO2 sources having a CO2 storage option within just 80 km. This suggests a strong potential for CCS to help bring about meaningful, sustained CO2 emissions reductions for these large, vibrant economies. However, while the USA and China possess many similarities with regards to the potential value that CCS might provide, including the range of costs at which CCS may be available to most large CO2 sources in each nation, there are a number of more subtle differences that may help us to understand the ways in which CCS deployment may differ as the the two nations work together–and in step with the rest of the world–to most efficiently reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper details the first ever analysis of CCS deployment costs in these two countries based on methodologically comparable CO2 source and sink inventories, economic analysis, geospatial source-sink matching and cost curve modeling. This type of analysis provides valuable insight into the degree to which early and sustained opportunities for climate change mitigation via commercial-scale CCS are available to the two countries, and could facilitate greater collaboration in areas where those opportunities overlap. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Climate change is one of the most important public policy issues of our time. Reconciling the world’s ongoing reliance on fossil fuels with the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of our greatest challenges. Canada is taking this challenge seriously with climate change policies that include enhancing our global leadership in advancing one of the most promising technologies for reducing GHG emissions from fossil fuel use: carbon capture and storage (CCS). Federal and provincial governments in Canada are making substantial investments in CCS, committing upwards of CAD 3 billion in public funding towards seven large-scale fully-integrated CCS demonstration projects. The federal ecoENERGY Technology Initiative announced $151 million for the initial engineering and/or pilot stages of seven potential demonstration projects in 2008. The 2009 federal budget created Clean Energy Fund, which included $610 million for CCS demonstrations. The Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia have also committed funding for demonstrations, in particular $2 billion by Alberta. This public funding will leverage additional investment from industry, for projects that will each capture and store on the order of 1 million tonnes of CO2 per year, coming on-line starting in 2015 or sooner. In order to generate early benefits from these investments, Government of Canada intends to create a knowledge sharing framework for CCS demonstration projects in Canada. The learnings from this first wave of demonstration projects should be disseminated in order to reduce challenges for the next generation of CCS projects and to build competitive advantage. This work will also support and provide input to the knowledge sharing and best practice guidelines being currently developed by Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute (GCCSI). Given that this level of information has not been shared in the past, establishing such a framework will pose several challenges such as concerns regarding the protection of the intellectual property (IP) and commercially sensitive information. Knowledge sharing will also support public engagement and capacity building programs, and it will provide an opportunity to assess the effectiveness and impact of the public investment. This paper will provide an overview and progress to date on the development of knowledge sharing and best practice guidelines in Canada. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Carbon capture and storage systems require handling large volumes of high pressure CO2. Having thorough knowledge of the related hazards is essential, as is knowing how to prevent, detect, control and mitigate accidents. This paper gives a short description of CO2 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVEs) and presents results from preliminary, small scale experiments with CO2 BLEVEs. The mechanism of superheated liquid CO2 boiling is not fully understood. Analogies can be made between gas explosions and rapid phase transitions occurring in BLEVEs. The experiments indicate that violent boiling may occur before the spinodal point is reached. Shock waves in the experiments were generated by the decompression of the vapour in the vessel before rupture. However, our recent theoretical models show that boiling also will contribute to shock strength. We observed fragment velocities up to approximately 100 m/s. Such fragments are a serious hazard. Large scale tests and laboratory tests are needed for validation of equation of state models and for the development of computational fluid dynamic codes for use in risk analysis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Copenhagen Accord recognizes the scientific view that the increase in global temperature should be below 2 degrees Celsius, and deep cuts in global emissions are required. According to the Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC, the global emissions in 2050 should be reduced by 50% at least compared to the 2000 level in order to achieve below around 2 degrees Celsius and 450 ppmv- CO2eq.. However, the future improvement over 4% p.a. will be needed to achieve halving global emissions within a few percent of GDP losses, while the historical carbon intensity was improved by 1.2% p.a, There are large gaps between historical trends and the required efforts for such a challenging target. In addition, historical trends indicate that it is very difficult to achieve reductions in primary energy consumptions. Therefore, decarbonization of the energy, i.e., carbon intensity improvement, is indispensable for deep emission cuts. Although the developed countries had some trends of the decarbonization, it is also far from such targets of large emission reductions. De-carbonization technologies of nuclear power, renewable energies and Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) are significant. Most emission reduction scenarios including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report and the International Energy Agency (IEA) show increase in carbon price to advance carbon emissions for the future under the assumptions on sustainable global cooperation for emission reductions. However, It is difficult to sustain global cooperative intention to tackle global warming over 100 years in a real world. The carbon price rather should be decreased in the long-run for sustainable development and sustainable global actions for emission reductions. In addition, historical and currently planed carbon prices of emission trading schemes in many countries are low in the real world, and high carbon prices, particularly explicit prices, are unacceptable politically. CCS development and deployment has risks of intermittent carbon price in near- and mid-term and of carbon price converging zero in long-term. This paper discusses this gap between proposed scenarios assuming ideal world including continuous increase in carbon price and politically acceptable carbon prices in the real world, and outlook of plausible CCS deployment considering the gap. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Laboratory core flooding experiments coupled with CT scanning has been shown to be very useful for examining CO2-brine displacement processes. These experiments can be used to measure core average properties such as absolute and relative permeability, and also to examine sub core-scale saturation and porosity distributions. By examining the sub core scale fluid distributions during the displacement process, it is possible to study the displacement efficiency of CO2-brine drainage processes, residual trapping and fluid saturation at the millimeter to sub-millimeter scale. One potentially useful tool for studying CO2-brine systems is using numerical simulation to replicate and study these core flooding systems. This could be used to study the interactions and relative impact of different parameters such as capillary pressure, relative permeability and heterogeneity on brine displacement by CO2 under various flow conditions. One challenge to successfully conducting such numerical experiments has been accurate representation of the permeability distribution inside the core at the millimeter and sub-millimeter scale. Other simulation parameters can all be measured using laboratory experiments, but permeability must be derived from other properties at the core and sub core-scale. Previous work has shown that predicting sub core-scale permeability distributions based on porosity does not result in accurate representation of permeability at such a small scale. To improve these predictions, a new method based on capillary pressure and was developed and used to accurately predict sub core-scale permeability distributions in a relatively homogeneous Berea sandstone. The work presented in this paper uses the same method to calculate permeability in a strongly heterogeneous sandstone core from the Otway Basin Pilot Project in Australia. Simulations show that the results are consistent with previous results in the homogeneous cores, with statistically significant capability to predict sub core-scale CO2 distributions in the core. Due to the extreme heterogeneity of the core used in this study, the average match is not as good as for a relatively homogeneous rock core, however, a visual comparison shows that the results are still very good, and that the new method used to calculate permeability may still be valid even in the presence of strong heterogeneity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: IGCC power plants seem to represent one of the most appealing options to produce electric energy from coal and low grade solid fuels with interesting plant efficiency and low environmental impact. As a matter of fact the majority of gasification-based power plants are equipped with oxygen-blown gasifiers which have two main advantages with respect to air-blown reactors: high values of cold gas efficiency and an N2 deprived syngas. The aim of this paper is to compare two different oxygen production technologies for oxidant supply to the gasification island. An IGCC power plant with pre-combustion CO2 capture has been modelled considering: (i) a cryogenic distillation ASU based on a pumped liquid oxygen cycle; (ii) an innovative OTM-based oxygen production technology integrated in the power island. An overall heat and material balance has been estimated to evaluate plant performances and compare the two options; our thermodynamic analysis shows a promising improvement of the overall plant performance for the OTM-based IGCC nonetheless several key issues deserve a more in depth analysis to asses the real potentialities of membrane-based oxygen production technology. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: FutureGen, as originally planned, was to be the world’s first coal-fueled, near-zero emissions power plant with fully integrated, 90% carbon capture and storage (CCS). From conception through siting and design, it enjoyed strong support from multiple stakeholder groups, which benefited the overall project. Understanding the stakeholder engagement process for this project provides valuable insights into the design of stakeholder programs for future CCS projects. FutureGen is one of few projects worldwide that used open competition for siting both the power plant and storage reservoir. Most site proposals were coordinated by State governments. It was unique in this and other respects relative to the site selection method used on other DOE-supported projects. At the time of site selection, FutureGen was the largest proposed facility designed to combine an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) coal-fueled power plant with a CCS system. Stakeholder engagement by states and the industry consortium responsible for siting, designing, building, and operating the facility took place simultaneously and on parallel tracks. On one track were states spearheading state-wide site assessments to identify candidate sites that they wanted to propose for consideration. On the other track was a public-private partnership between an industry consortium of thirteen coal companies and electric utilities that comprised the FutureGen Alliance (Alliance) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The partnership was based on a cooperative agreement signed by both parties, which assigned the lead for siting to the Alliance. This paper describes the stakeholder engagement strategies used on both of these tracks and provides examples from the engagement process using the Illinois semi-finalist sites. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A public survey was conducted concerning carbon capture and storage technology (CCS) in the months of February and April 2007 in Japan, Previously another CCS survey took place in December 2003, and a set of the questions asked in the 2007 survey were purposely the same as that used in the 2003 survey, Japanese adults were randomly selected to answer a questionnaire either in printed format or in online format. Several versions of the questionnaire were used, and each contained a different educational part, imparting relevant CCS information. 334 people successfully responded to our paper survey in Tokyo and Sapporo while 2156 people completed our online survey across the nation. The questionnaire for the survey contained 5 sets of different information package on CCS and questions asking pros and cons on CCS implementation to analyze influence of information provided on CCS. Based on the results of survey we found: that not many people still know about CCS. Those who have knowledge on CCS show a preference for CCS implementation, however; preference was decreased after obtaining information which we considered was neutral on CCS. These results suggest a possibility that information on negative aspects of CCS (risks, etc.) would not be well known in the general public. We also found that preference for CSS decreased slightly after providing different information on CCS to respondents in the group with the newspaper articles which we considered neutral in comparison with other groups. The newspaper articles contained the information on negative opinions against CCS besides risk-related information as well as information based on an IPCC Special Report: it is assumed that such negative opinions may have influenced opinion formation of respondents. Since CCS is new technology, information about how other people or entities evaluate CCS would influence public opinion. In the sub-sample provided with industrial and natural analogues of preference on geological storage, the views were slightly more positive about CSS in comparison with reported opinions of other groups. This implies information on natural or industrial analogue would help manage perception of risk in a positive way. The result of path analysis to data of a public survey identified four factors, (1) risks and leakage, (2) effectiveness of CCS, (3) responsibility, and (4) fossil fuel use. We found that the factor of understanding the effectiveness of CCS is most positively influential for general acceptance of CCS. I Implementation of geological storage and the factor of risks and leakage become much more influential negatively in the implementation of geological storage compared to general acceptance of CCS, implying that implementation of CC2 geological storage also needs careful communication of risk. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Recent surveys, polls, and other research focused on stakeholder attitudes towards the nascent commercial deployment of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technologies revealed that the general public knows relatively little about CCS. Given this lack of knowledge with respect to the concept of CCS—let alone first-hand experiential knowledge derived from seeing these technologies deployed in local communities—it is imperative to re-examine how research on CCS stakeholder involvement is conducted and how the results of these studies are reported. This paper will explore several such framing issues regarding future stakeholder involvement activities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As the private sector and government begin to spend billions of dollars to research and deploy carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, the question of legal liability for managing short-term and long-term environmental, health and safety risks must be addressed. We examine potential CCS liability within a U.S. context and survey the existing environmental and tort law liability regimes that may affect CCS. We conclude that while existing liability regimes are insufficient on their own to govern the CCS industry, they could provide important risk management tools and serve as safeguards to private parties and governments in the event of harm. We also propose a model for long term stewardship, blending including bonding, insurance, and pooled federal funding into commercial CCS project management to better provide financial security to investors without destroying existing liability protections for those who may suffer harm from CCS. This proposal offers a starting point to develop a model to integrate liability for the nascent CCS industry. A longer version of this paper can be found in the Emory Law Review, Fall 2008. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has built at least 70 GW of new coal- fired power installed capacity annually since 2005 and the growth is expected to continue (CEC, 2008). Chinese government, industry and academic stakeholders perceive that China will not mandate new plants to be built with carbon dioxide capture and storage systems in the short term and there is little incentive even to contemplate the first steps needed to fit plants with capture equipment [Reiner, D., Liang, X., Sun, X., Zhu, Y., Li, D., 2007. Stakeholder attitudes towards carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies in China, International Climate Change Conference, Hong Kong, May 29–31 2007]. We investigate the value of making new plants CO2 Capture Ready (CCR), which would enable them to retrofit to capture CO2 without unnecessary additional costs when the appropriate policy and /or economic drivers are in place (IEA, 2007). In order to understand the value and investment characteristics of CCR in China, a typical 600 MW pulverized-coal -fired ultra-supercritical power plant, locating at Guangdong province, was examined. Combined with a detailed engineering assessment, we obtained the costs for different CCR scenarios. To analyze CCR investment opportunities, we apply a cash flow model for valuing Capture Options, as developed in [Liang, X., Reiner, D., Gibbins J., Li J., 2007. Fianncing CCR coal-fired power plants in China by issuing capture options, EPRG Working Paper Series, EPRG0728, Cambridge, December. Available at: www.electricitypolicy.org.uk/pubs/wp/eprg0728.pdf]. Results are obtained by Monte-Carlo simulation, based on engineering surveys and the IEA (2007) CCR study, as well as plant performance information and expert projections on carbon prices, coal prices and electricity prices. CCR investments are justified by factors such as higher retrofitting probabilities, lower early-closure probabilities and fair economic return. However, the economic case for CCR largely depends on the type of investments made, for example, CCR-essential investments tend to be more economic than additional non-essential CCR features such as CCR Essential with clutched low-pressure turbines. Carbon price, coal price and discount rate also were found to have significant impacts on the economics of CCR. Overall, it appears that the value of capture options are significant, and therefore clear retrofitting strategies would be valuable for any CCR investment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coal is China’s primary fuel for power generation and will almost certainly remain so for the foreseeable future. China had an installed power generation capacity of a little over 700GWe in 2007, which is projected to nearly double within the next 20 years. NZEC (Near Zero Emission Coal) is a major Sino-British initiative on carbon capture and storage. One of its key aims is to complete the work required to construct a coal-fired power generation plant in China with CCS. The first phase of NZEC is a feasibility study, due to complete in late 2009, in which options for CCS in China are being explored. As part of the feasibility study, an energy systems analysis using the China MARKAL model is being undertaken to provide a perspective on the energy technologies that may be deployed in China to meet its energy needs. The energy situation in China is being analysed, with a detailed investigation undertaken of the various technologies and fuels employed at present. Based on growth forecasts and national plans for China, predictions will be made of the technologies and fuels that may be deployed to meet its future needs. The role of coal and the various technology options for utilising that coal will be identified. An estimate of the CO2 emissions arising from the utilisation of coal and the potential impact of their release to the atmosphere will be made. The potential for CCS to reduce CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, and the cost and impact of deploying CCS will be examined. In this paper, the authors will provide a progress review of this analysis and present provisional results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China’s economy has been on a solid fast growth track since 1978. The economy expanded by an average annual rate of about 10% during the last thirty years. That is more than triple the average growth rate of the world economy during the same period. The rapid economic development has been associated with growing energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. Although the first phase of the Kyoto Protocol exempts China from reducing its own CO2 output, China, as the first or second largest CO2 emission country, is facing growing international political pressure. As a responsible big country, China will almost certainly have to respond to climate change in the future. China is entering unexpected fast development period of the industrialization, urbanization and motorization, in which large-scale new infrastructures will be built. This provides great opportunity to plan for longer-term CO2 mitigation—the infrastructures built today have a long life time and are not easy to upgrade the technologies involved, and decisions made now will have a major impact on energy utilization mode and CO2 mitigation technology option in coming years. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), as an option in the portfolio of mitigation actions to combat climate change, is expected to have far-reaching implications for China. This paper (1) explores the strategic significance of CCS for China by making an extreme scenario analysis of Chinese power sector in 2030; (2) provides an overview of the recent CCS activities in China; and (3) identifies the major challenges with respect to CCS development in China and put forwards immediate strategies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Post combustion absorption technologies represent one of the most commercially ready technologies for CO2 capture. Solvent selection is the critical consideration in post-combustion absorption capture technology. In order to compare the performance of different solvents, it is necessary to perform simulations on a consistent basis and perform a process analysis of the system. The focus of this work was to develop consistent simulations for MEA and K2CO3 systems in ASPEN. The simulations have been developed within the ASPEN RateSep framework and are valid for both natural gas and coal fired power plants. This paper describes the methodology of the simulations and some results from the two systems. The MEA base case was validated with reported values in literature. Potassium carbonate was found to be particularly useful for pressurized combustion and for CO2 removal from product gases of reforming of natural gas or coal. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The co-production of electricity and hydrogen from fossil fuels with the simultaneous capture of CO2 is an attractive proposal for the future European power generation system. A plant based on this technology and with the ability to vary the electricity-tohydrogen output could operate in base-load mode irrespective of the electricity demand, with significant economic advantages. This paper focuses on this type of plant fuelled by coal and lignite and identifies the most suitable gasification technologies that could be adopted for each fuel type, proposes optimal plant configurations and assesses plant performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Doosan Babcock is aiming to develop a competitive oxyfuel firing technology suitable for full plant application post 2010, and is taking a phased approach to the development and demonstration of oxyfuel technology. Doosan Babcock is leading a number of UK Government supported collaborative projects that are developing oxyfuel combustion technology. The “Fundamentals and Underpinning Technologies” project aims to develop a competitive oxyfuel firing process based on the integration of well proven and innovative power plant design components, addressing critical technology gaps such as combustion fundamentals, furnace design and operation, novel flue gas purification technologies and generic process issues. The “Demonstration of an Oxyfuel Combustion System” project aims to demonstrate an oxyfuel combustion system of a type and size (40MWt) applicable to new build and retrofit advanced supercritical boiler plant. These two projects are discussed in the paper and preliminary results from pilot-scale testing undertaken in the first of these are presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]