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In this paper an approach for analysing the potential for implementation of different technology pathways for the European pulp and paper industry (PPI) is presented. The approach is based on detailed technical research and aggregates the knowledge from previous studies to incorporate the whole European PPI. Thus, the potential for different technology pathways can be estimated on a European level whilst still considering important characteristics of individual mills. The usefulness of the approach was exemplified by applying it to a case study of the potential for introduction of carbon capture and storage (CCS) within the European PPI. The results from the case study show that for the European PPI, CCS has an up-hill road in order to be a viable, large scale alternative for reduction of CO2 emissions. If CCS is to be introduced in large scale within the European PPI, large biomass-based point sources of CO2 emissions need to be included when planning for CCS infrastructure and also the infrastructure needs to be built out for clusters emitting <20 MtCO2/yr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

District heating and cooling systems have been present on the European market for more than a century, constantly evolving into more efficient energy infrastructures important for decarbonization of the heating and cooling sectors. With roughly 17,000 operational district heating systems, serving over 70 million citizens, currently, the final energy consumption attributed to district heating in Europe is estimated at over 450 TWh. As the European district heating and cooling sector varies extensively in every analyzed aspect, there are vast differences between European countries regarding technical preferences, technological development, market structure and regulatory frameworks of these systems. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the present status of the district heating and cooling systems in Europe with insight(s) and suggestions into future trends. In addition, the provided data serves as a valuable baseline for future research. Finally, this paper draws attention to the new socio-demographic approach, observed when analyzing the district heating and cooling systems, that has been recently introduced into the scientific community. This new approach also reveals the opportunity for creating new indicators that will influence the modeling of existing and future district heating and cooling systems. • Provides a review on ongoing trends in European district heating and cooling sector. • Analyses European DHC systems from technological, market, and regulatory aspect. • Provides an overview on commonly used performance indicators and energy models. • Discusses the possibility of creating new DHC indicators. • Discusses the trends in future DHC development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper measures environmental efficiency and productivity change to then carry out a decomposition analysis of an environmental efficiency index and a productivity change index. The paper includes a novel comparative assessment to determine the drivers of environmental efficiency and the sources of productivity change of the manufacturing sector in Europe, Asia and the whole world. We explore the capability to convert in an environmentally efficient way, selected inputs into desirable and undesirable outputs. Our estimation results of environmental efficiency confirm that Europe is ahead the world's average. Our analysis shows, however, a slowdown of Europe compared with the productivity growth of Asia. The latter shows a better performance in management capabilities, optimal resource allocation, and economies of scale. The analysis carried out in a second stage using the dynamic effects of the generalized method of moments also shows that the annual growth rate of manufacturing value added and manufacturing exports positively influence the level of environmental efficiency in both Asia and Europe. Therefore, the internationalization and extroversion of manufacturing can be crucial for sustainable development in Europe and Asia. • Benchmarking the strategy for sustainable development in Asia and Europe. • Decomposition of environmental efficiency indices and productivity change. • Effect of manufacturing value added and exports on environmental efficiency. • Benchmarking the manufacturing sector in Asia and Europe. • Showing Asia's best practices and European pillar of industrial restructuring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent geopolitical conflicts in Europe have underscored the vulnerability of the current energy system to the volatility of energy carrier prices. In the prospect of defining robust energy systems ensuring sustainable energy supply in the future, the imperative of leveraging renewable indigenous energy sources becomes evident. However, as such technologies are integrated into the existing system, it is necessary to shift from the current centralized infrastructure to a decentralized production strategy. This paper presents a method to identify a panel of technological solutions at the district level, intended to reduce complexity for the integration of decentralized models into a national-scale model. The framework's novelty lies in combining a global sensitivity analysis for solution generation with clustering to identify typical configurations. The global sensitivity analysis is performed on a mixed integer linear programming model, which optimally sizes and operates district energy systems. The sensitivity analysis determines the most influential parameters of the model using the Morris method and provides a representative sampling of the solution space by leveraging the Sobol sampling strategy. The latter is then clustered using a density-based algorithm to identify typical solutions. The framework is applied to a suburban and residential Swiss neighborhood. The first outcome of the research is the high sensitivity of the model to energy carrier prices. As a result, Sobol's sampling space separates itself into two system types: those based on a natural gas boiler and those relying on a combination of electrical heaters and heat pumps. For both types, the electricity demand is either fulfilled by PV panels or electricity imports. The identified configurations showcase that the framework successfully generates a panel of solutions composed of various system configurations and operations being representative of the overall solution space. • Energy carriers' retail prices are the most influential parameters of a district energy system. • Energy system configurations differ according to the consumed energy carrier and PV penetration. • PV deployment is affected by electricity tariffs but not by technological implementations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper inaugurates the study of the energy-sustainable economic growth for Europe. It is novel both because it calculates an Index for Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) index for European countries, but foremost because it compares the conventional energy-growth nexus with the newly appeared energy-sustainable growth nexus. Also, it goes further by suggesting ways to overcome the limitations pointed out to the use of the conventional GDP. The paper uses the road sector energy consumption, which is in accordance with the enormous discussion about the high energy intensity of the road transport sector and about the huge dependence from fossil sources of this sector. The dynamic Driscoll-Kraay estimator is also used, which allows decomposing the effects in the short- and long-run and is also robust in the presence of cross-sectional dependence. Results show that economic growth and sustainable economic welfare are not perfect substitute variables. In the long-run, the feedback hypothesis is verified only for sustainable growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper delves into the potential impact of a changing climate on the energy performance of European buildings. Research aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of current energy requirements focusing on the envelope, considering existing regulations in national policies. Energy simulations are conducted at 94 locations across the European Union to cover the climatic variability and Koppen climate classification. The research analyzes future climate scenarios for the years 2030, 2050, and 2070, using three different Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP 2.6, 4.5, 8.5). According to a comprehensive analysis of heating, cooling, and overall energy performance, climate plays a significant role in buildings' energy balance. In moderately cool climate countries, the demand for air conditioning is projected to decrease in the years ahead. Conversely, in countries with a warm climate, there is a projected increase in the overall energy demand. Consequently, a revision of current energy regulations should be a priority. Providing insights into the relation between building design, energy efficiency, and climate change, the research identifies policy adjustments to ensure buildings can effectively respond to changing climatic conditions. A holistic and dynamic approach can support building design accounting for long-term impacts of climate change to create resilient and energy-efficient structures. • National building energy regulations of European Member States do not tackle climate change. • Over next decades, a decrease in heating demand is forecasted across all climate zones. • There is potential for a future considerable increase of cooling demand in Europe. • A reduction in total building energy demand in colder climates and an increase in warmer climates can be expected. • Revise national energy regulations, especially in warmer zones, to curb the expected rise in Europe's total energy demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

External energy security has gained importance within the EU due to the current Russian-Ukrainian natural gas dispute, but also because of mid- and long-term issues connected to the availability of energy supply in Europe. The Energy Union proposal is supposed to increase the coherence of the EU in external energy, thus contributing to the energy security of the Community. However, various member states have already expressed different (not always positive) views, concerning this project. In order to shed light on the further development of the Energy Union, the present paper – based on 52 semi-structured interviews – examines members states' support for and opposition to the further deepening of integration in external energy security. By analysing Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, this paper argues that member states' preferences depend at least partly on the decision-makers' perceptions of their state's ability to cope with three energy security challenges (external, internal and business). States whose decision-makers believe that their countries are able to successfully cope with these challenges are more likely to oppose further integration in energy security area, while member states whose decision-makers view these tasks as challenging are more likely to support the transfer of competences to the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excess heat could meet approximately 25% of the heat demand in the European building sector. However, the recovery of excess heat is low, which has been attributed to financial, technical and organisational barriers. There is limited information on the perceived risk exposure of excess heat recovery at different points in time, before undertaking the investment or after having undertaken the investment, and at locations with existing district heating networks or not (greenfield). This is unfortunate because experience can enable new collaborations. In this paper, we compare the perceived risk exposure of four greenfield and two ongoing industrial excess heat recovery collaborations. In doing so, we confirm previously identified barriers, such as difficulty to agree on the value of excess heat, the risk of a single heat source and lack of regulation. We also find that, with experience, changes to the excess heat-generating processes are increasingly important, whereas, greenfield sites find the lack of 'know-how' to be risky. However, the main conclusion from this paper is that the risks of industrial excess heat recovery collaborations appear to be over-emphasised. In fact, risk exposure of industrial activity can be reduced through industrial waste heat recovery as excess heat is characterized by limited price fluctuations and new environmental requirements from customers and authorities can be met proactively. Combining experience with a standardised excess heat recovery policy should significantly reduce the risk exposure of new collaborations. • Risks of industrial excess heat recovery collaborations are over-emphasised. • Excess heat exploitation is imperative to Europe's energy transition. • Experience and policy making can make excess heat recovery a standard solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By 2020 Europe has to increase its energy efficiency and share of renewables in 20%. However, even accomplishing these challenging objectives Europe will be effectively wasting energy as we demonstrate in this paper. In our way towards a fully renewable scenario, we need at least to stop wasting energy in order to guarantee the energy supply needed for growth and comfort. We waste energy when we employ more primary energy than the final energy we ultimately use and this excess cannot be reutilized. In this paper we propose the WE (wasted energy) as a novel metric to measure the performance of energy systems and set up appropriate targets. The WE incorporates information about energy efficiency and renewable sources. Unlike European legislation, the WE considers them in an integrated way. This approach will help Member States to exploit their intrinsic capabilities and design their optimum strategy to reach their objectives. Using the information in Eurostat, we calculate the WE of Member States in EU-28 and their evolution. We also analyze illustrative examples to highlight strategies to reduce the WE, study the connection between economic development and WE, and provide a tool to diagnose the potential of improvement of an energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial furnace is one of the most energy intensive processes in Europe and it has been the focus of multiple researches to address improvements in the competitiveness energy, environmental and cost performance. One of the alternatives is the reduction of fossil fuel consumption, such as natural gas, promoting its substitution by an alternative fuel (Co-firing). This paper gathers a wide evaluation of the possibilities of substitution of natural gas. A revision of the types of syngas with potential for use has been carried out, as well as the evaluation of the physical properties of the mixtures from the combustion operation point of view. Three types of syngas from biomass gasification (BSG) and three from process off-gases (POG) have been considered. The feasibility study has taken into consideration parameters such as the lower heating value, the Woobe index, adiabatic flame temperature, air preheating temperature, total flue flow and laminar flame velocity. Regardless of the type of syngas, significant increase in volumetric fuel flow occurs in all cases. This behaviour is directly related to the LHV of the syngas, so that using syngases with lower LHV than the NG will always produce an increase of the fuel flow. A weigh matrix has been obtained in order to evaluate the viability of burners use with the syngas/natural gas mixture. It has been considered a burner commonly used in ceramic sector and it has been concluded that relevant modifications are necessary in order to consider the combustion of syngas/natural gas. The modifications have been evaluated using CFD simulations to stablish the proper design of the mix zone to ensure the mixture between the air, syngas and natural gas. This evaluation has been carried out following the fuel to air ratio. • Woobe Index is the best theoretical parameter to evaluate fuel replacement. • AFT, LHV and LFV should be also taken into account in the evaluation. • Deep burner modifications should be carried out for NG substitution by syngas. • Fuel to air ratio is a proper parameter to evaluate combustion performance. • Swirl plate is required to achieve a suitable mixture between NG-SG-combustible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU has undertaken a thorough reform of its energy model. Current EU 2050 climate commitment sets an 80–95% GHG reduction goal. To reach this goal, the EU must make continued progress towards a low-carbon society. Renewable energy sources and electric vehicle play an important role for a gradual transition. The power grid faces a challenging future due to intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind and solar energy production, but flexibility needs can migrate from generation to load, with the expansion of demand-side resources and storage technologies. A novel grid technique is presented and evaluated in this paper for the optimal integrated operation of renewable resources and electric vehicle to increase penetration of renewable energy. It is proposed a distribute control system to manage a charge and discharge strategy to support mismatching between load and renewable generation thru V2G technology. Demand response, peak saving and ancillary services are introduced to keep a reliable power quality, stable frequency and flatten load profile. Image 1 • Europe 2050 low-carbon scenario based on RES and energy efficiency is reviewed. • The effects of high renewable and efficient electricity system are assessed. • A smart charging strategy for EV is presented to provide grid services. • Demand response and EV storage are analyzed to match with non-dispatchable resources. • The impact of proposed charging strategy on electric load curve is evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy retrofitting of residential stock is not always straightforward where heritage protected housing is concerned. In southern Europe, many examples built under the Modern Movement codes are now obsolete in terms of energy efficiency. The aim of this paper is to assess the potential for improvement of comfort conditions and energy efficiency in Mediterranean heritage residential buildings, through the incorporation of passive strategies in keeping with preserving heritage values. Long-term monitoring and field tests in representative flats of the case-study building were carried out and, focusing on a single example, adaptive comfort equations were used to assess results. The passive strategies considered are the thermal isolation of the air cavities of walls, changing window frames, optimizing window glazing, and setting up regular mechanical ventilation rates for indoor air changes. Although simulation results generally predict a better energy performance after testing retrofit strategies, the potential decrease in energy demand is more noticeable than the potential improvement in comfort conditions. • The improvement of comfort and energy efficiency in a heritage building is assessed. • Long-term monitoring and field tests were carried out in representative flats. • Passive strategies in keeping with preserving heritage values were examined. • Adaptive comfort equations were used to assess results focusing on one flat. • Energy efficiency improvements are more noticeable than those of comfort conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One promising technology to manage and store renewable electricity from wind or solar sources is Power to Gas (PtG). PtG combines H 2 from electrolysis –run by renewable electricity– with CO 2 to produce synthetic CH 4. A suitable option to get the required CO 2 streams is the integration with carbon capture technologies, in particular with oxy-fuel combustion. The application proposed in this study is a cogeneration system that combines PtG, oxyfuel boiler, wind energy and photovoltaic solar production to be applied in buildings. This paper describes the concept and analyses the influence of equipment dimensions varying the relative size and the proportion of the solar-wind installed power for two locations representative of North and South European countries. Show that higher solar and wind powers are required in the Northern region to satisfy coverage of thermal demand. It results in longer time displacement of energy storage towards cold months. Accordingly to the generation patterns of wind and solar energies, higher solar proportion results in longer energy storage periods. Therefore, solar resource is more suitable than wind power to exploit the potential of PtG technology, although the size of the overall systems increases. • An application of satisfying energy demand through Power to Gas is analysed. • The combination of solar PV, wind, oxyfuel boiler and energy storage is feasible. • North Europe countries need bigger systems achieving large energy storage. • Energy storage necessities for southern Europe countries are smaller than for Northern Europe. • Larger amounts of synthetic gas are stored with high PV power shares. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the economic and environmental effects of three scenarios of change for the electricity sector in Spain, in line with the European Union targets: (1) to address the low trade with the rest of Europe, increasing the integration with the European network; (2) to enhance environmental sustainability, increasing the use of renewable energy sources, while decreasing the use of brown energy sources; and (3) increasing the competitiveness of the Spanish electricity sector. To this end, we develop a computable general equilibrium model, with 72 productive sectors, eleven of which are energy sectors, where electricity is disaggregated into five production technologies and transmission, distribution, commercialization, and related activities. The model is calibrated on a previously developed input-output table with this detailed disaggregation for Spain for 2013. Our results suggest potential improvements in production and trade, and reductions in CO 2 emissions in scenario 2 are also observed. • We address the effects of three policy scenarios for electricity sector in Spain. • We analyze the effects of increasing trade, renewables, and competitiveness. • We construct and disaggregate a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. • CGE distinguishes the businesses of the sector and the production technologies. • We found improvements in production and trade and reductions in CO 2 emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Waste heat is an abundant resource that if recovered with a heat pump would increase energy efficiency in industrial processes. This will provide improvements in heat utilization and reduce the environmental impact of greenhouse gas emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel. A hydrocarbon high temperature heat pump has been developed to demonstrate the potential to deliver heat at a temperature of 115 °C. The heat pump provides heat for applications such as drying, pasteurization and other processes. Using hydrocarbons, the heat pump aims for a clean energy system. This paper reports on a 20 kW capacity cascade heat pump with propane in the low temperature cycle and butane in the high temperature cycle. Based on a theoretical model, an experimental setup is built with standard components that are commercially available. A prototype compressor is investigated for its performance at high temperature conditions. The heat pump can recover waste heat at 30 °C and deliver heat up to 115 °C. With an average heating coefficient of performance (COP) of 3.1 for a temperature lift of 58–72 K, the heat pump is a more cost efficient and environmentally friendly system compared to existing solutions of a steam boiler. Highlights • Experimental investigation of a high temperature heat pump up to 115 °C. • Experimental investigation of a modified compressor for high temperature heat pump. • Coefficient of performance (COP) of 2.1 and 3.1 for waste heat at 30 °C and 60 °C. • Heat pump COP at 60 °C waste heat break-evens with gas boilers in less than 3 years. • Carbon emissions reduction of over 95% in Norway and 30% in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Building energy use accounts for almost 50% of the total CO2 emissions in the UK. Most of the research has focused on reducing the operational impact of buildings, however in recent years many studies have indicated the significance of embodied energy in different building types. This paper primarily focuses on illustrating the relative importance of operational and embodied energy in a flexible use light distribution warehouse. The building is chosen for the study as it is relatively easy to model and represents many distribution centres and industrial warehouses in Europe. A carbon footprinting study was carried out by conducting an inventory of the major installed materials with potentially significant carbon impact and material substitutions covering the building structure. Ecotect computer simulation program was used to determine the energy consumption for the 25 years design life of the building. This paper evaluates alternative design strategies for the envelope of the building and their effects on the whole life emissions by investigating both embodied and operational implications of changing the envelope characteristics. The results provide an insight to quantify the total amount of CO2 emissions saved through design optimisation by modeling embodied and operational energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Electricity systems models are software tools used to manage electricity demand and the electricity systems, to trade electricity and for generation expansion planning purposes. Various portfolios and scenarios are modelled in order to compare the effects of decision making in policy and on business development plans in electricity systems so as to best advise governments and industry on the least cost economic and environmental approach to electricity supply, while maintaining a secure supply of sufficient quality electricity. The modelling techniques developed to study vertically integrated state monopolies are now applied in liberalised markets where the issues and constraints are more complex. This paper reviews the changing role of electricity systems modelling in a strategic manner, focussing on the modelling response to key developments, the move away from monopoly towards liberalised market regimes and the increasing complexity brought about by policy targets for renewable energy and emissions. The paper provides an overview of electricity systems modelling techniques, discusses a number of key proprietary electricity systems models used in the USA and Europe and provides an information resource to the electricity analyst not currently readily available in the literature on the choice of model to investigate different aspects of the electricity system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes insights on differences in observed rates of substitution for fossil fuels across countries as measured by changes in the energy mix. If some countries are relatively slower in substituting for fossil fuels, climate change will be addressed less successfully. This paper specifically investigates the role of industrialisation and state-related institutions in the speed of energy substitution in 19 European countries from years 2011–2018 using panel data econometric methods, and has three main results. This paper finds evidence that (1) higher industrialisation levels in the economy increase the speed of energy substitution; (2) that changes in industrialisation levels, not the levels themselves, decrease the speed of energy substitution, but state-related institutions in support of green energy policy weaken this effect; and that (3) higher degrees of state control of the electricity sector slows down energy substitution, but state-related institutions in support of green energy policy likewise weaken this effect. These findings imply that higher industrialisation levels require more energy in absolute terms, implying greater energy portfolio diversification in order to satisfy such energy demand, and that a faster energy substitution can result from a more liberalised electricity sector. • A study on 19 European countries from years 2011–2018 using panel data. • Changes in industrialisation levels decelerates energy substitution. • More state control of the electricity sector decelerates energy substitution. • State-related institutions supporting green energy policies weaken these effects. • Higher industrialisation levels themselves however accelerate energy substitution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: During the project Clean Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE), which ended in May 2006, 27 fuel cell buses were operated in nine European cities. In this paper key performance parameters from the operation of the fuel cell buses in the project are reported, the energy system of the bus is analysed and drive cycle tests in five cities are presented and analysed. The focus of the paper is on fuel consumption and optimisation potential but experiences of, and recommendations for, evaluation in large demonstration projects are also presented. The results show that although the total fuel cell system efficiency was found to be high (36–41%), the fuel consumption was higher for the fuel cell buses than for diesel buses. Since the CUTE buses were a pre-commercial generation of fuel cell buses, with standard auxiliaries and extensive reliability measures, large fuel consumption reduction is possible. Suggestions on how to increase the efficiency is presented in this paper. Minimising the reliability measures would decrease fuel consumption by about 20% and lowering the weight by 2 tonnes would decrease fuel consumption by another 10%. Hybridisation in combination with using electrical auxiliaries could save an additional 5–10% or more. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The ceramics industry is the second largest energy consuming sector in Europe. The main energy used in the ceramics industry is heat generated through burners using natural gas. The main area can be identified in three stages, the drying stage and the firing stage, and the cooling stage. The firing stage represents about 75% of the total energy cost. The roller hearth kiln technology is considered to be the most cost-effective solution for ceramic tile manufacturing. The kiln is separated into two sections, the firing stage and the cooling stage. The cooling stage generates large amounts of waste heat as the exhaust of the kiln is composed of a challenging flue gas for heat recovery. The recovery of this heat in an efficient way with no cross contamination has been achieved with a heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) system, which was designed, manufactured and installed on a roller hearth kiln and is presented in this paper. The heat pipe heat exchanger located next to the cooling section exhaust stack managed to recover up to 100 kW at steady state without cross contamination or excess fouling. The return on investment of the system has been evaluated at 16 months with a saving of £30,000 per year. This paper will present a deep row by row theoretical analysis of the heat pipe heat exchanger. The Computational Fluids Dynamics will also be presented to investigate the fluid dynamics within the evaporator and condenser section. Both investigations have then been validated by the experimental investigation carried out on a full-scale industrial system. The design approach used in this paper will highlight the benefits of this type of technology and provide a guideline for the design of novel heat pipe heat exchangers. • Full-scale exhaust to air HPHE applied to a ceramic kiln has been examined. • The state of the art of waste heat recovery in the ceramic industry is presented. • The theoretical modelling used to predict the HPHE performance is outlined. • CFD analysis of the HPHE is presented. • An ROI period of 16 months with savings of £30,000 per annum is calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of urban CO 2 networks has been developed to deploy heat pump based district heating and cooling systems in dense urban areas. The use of the CO 2 phase change reduces the cost of the heat distribution while allowing to recover waste heat that is typically rejected to the environment. The use of heat pumps to harvest heat from the environment and to supply heat to buildings allows one to propose district systems with COP as high as 6. Heat pumps can use the electricity produced by photovoltaics already providing up to 60% of the total consumption. This paper studies the integration of fuel cell based power to gas for the seasonal storage of the excess electricity produced in the summer by PV panels. The methane stored in liquid form is used in the winter to balance the electrical needs by fuel cell based co-generation, making therefore the city 100% supplied by renewable energy. The present work evaluates the integration of CO 2 district energy network including power to gas systems on a compact urban block considering heating, cooling, electricity, e-mobility and waste management for different European climatic zones. In order to reach fully autonomous blocks using solar PV and municipal and industrial waste heat, a PV area of 10–35 m 2 /cap would be needed. The rooftop area available appears to be sufficient in areas like Southern Europe, while more area or alternative renewable sources such as wind or hydro are needed for other climatic zones. Regarding the economic feasibility of the system, the results show that an investment of 900–1300 €/cap would be needed, with a payback time between 11 and 14 years, depending on the different climate zones in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy use has gained increasing attention when assessing economic growth and convergence of countries. Indeed, recent policy and regulatory implementations require a reduction of non-renewable energy use (to decrease greenhouse gas emissions) and a rise in renewable energy use. As such, many studies have tried to understand the contribution of energy on growth and convergence. In this paper, we propose to use a production-frontier approach to tackle this question. The distinguishing features of our methodology are: no assumptions about the growth process are required, and it isolates the impact of non-renewable and renewable energy. We apply our methodology to the case of the European countries from 1995 to 2015. We find that renewable energy changes cause a divergence, while non-renewable energy changes cause a convergence. We also find that the impact of both types of energy on economic growth, while small, is not negligible and increases with time. Next, we identify two groups: Eastern and central Europe and EU12, and show that the impact of both types of energy is different for each group. Finally, we relate our findings to several variables. This last part reveals important patterns and policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy system is facing changes across Europe, motivated by CO 2 emission reduction targets and driven by the expansion of renewable energy sources (RES). Germany is carrying out efforts to reshape its future energy system to be mainly based on RES. Nonetheless, flexible generation capacities like natural gas (NG) power plants will still be needed in the coming decades. Recent developments in the NG market have been characterised by uncertainties on the supply side as plans have been put forth for new pipelines to facilitate Russian or Caspian NG towards Europe as well as increasing volumes of liquefied natural gas entering the market. This paper aims to show the interdependence between infrastructure developments and primary NG demand in the German energy system. The authors analyse impacts for the German ‘Energiewende’ on a time horizon from 2010 to 2050. Coupling a European NG model with a German energy system model, we develop six scenarios regarding climate policy in Germany and European diversification strategies in infrastructure expansion. The results show, that NG prices influence sectoral changes especially in the residential sector. Further strategies to reduce CO 2 emissions in the entire energy system should also consider NG as part of the solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy is a focal point of discussion in the European Union, as clean production technologies contribute to all three aims of energy policy (security, competitiveness, and sustainability). This paper focuses on an empirical assessment of feed-in tariff and quota obligation policies, as well as their policy design elements, applied to solar photovoltaic energy in the European Union over the period 2000–2014. The results indicate that only feed-in tariff policy has significant impacts in terms of installed photovoltaic capacity. However, its main policy design elements (tariff size and contract duration) have a positive but not significant influence on the development of this clean production technology. Policy-makers should consider the importance of reducing regulatory uncertainty about these parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last few years, the water-energy nexus concept has emerged as a global issue. However, studies on European countries are relatively few, and often focused on agriculture. Cooling purposes represent the main part of industrial water demand, and waste-heat recovery is a main strategy to improve resource efficiency. This paper presents a real case study of low-temperature waste-heat recovery in an electric steelmaking industry and evaluates the impact of feasible interventions on primary energy and water consumption, as well as on CO2 equivalent emissions. Based on a Europe wide review of energy and water prices, of energy sources and corresponding resource efficiency indicators, a Monte Carlo model was developed to undertake a generalization of the case study to the EU-15. It was found that solutions with the lowest primary energy demand and the lowest CO2 equivalent emissions demonstrate the greatest water footprint. This is the case of some southern European countries, where heat recovery projects with the highest water intensity are feasible due to high electricity and low water prices. As increasing carbon prices may exacerbate this phenomenon, inducing a switch to water intensive technologies, incentives to carbon emission reduction should be carefully designed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes an overarching review of national municipal waste management systems and waste-to-energy as an important part of it in the context of circular economy in the selected countries in Europe. The growth of population and rising standards of living means that the consumption of goods and energy is increasing. On the one hand, consumption leads to an increase in the generation of waste. On the other hand, the correlation between increased wealth and increased energy consumption is very strong as well. Given that the average heating value of municipal solid waste (MSW) is approximately 10 MJ/kg, it seems logical to use waste as a source of energy. Traditionally, waste-to-energy (WtE) has been associated with incineration. Yet, the term is much broader, embracing various waste treatment processes generating energy (for instance, in the form of electricity and/or heat or producing a waste-derived fuel). Turning waste into energy can be one key to a circular economy enabling the value of products, materials, and resources to be maintained on the market for as long as possible, minimising waste and resource use. As the circular economy is at the top of the EU agenda, all Member States of the EU (including the EEA countries) should move away from the old-fashioned disposal of waste to a more intelligent waste treatment encompassing the circular economy approach in their waste policies. Therefore, the article examines how these EU policies are implemented in practice. Given that WtE traditionally is attached to the MSW management and organisation, the focus of this article is twofold. Firstly, it aims to identify the different practices of municipal waste management employed in selected countries and their approaches in embracing the circular economy and, secondly, the extent to which WtE technologies play any role in this context. The following countries, Estonia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, and the UK were chosen to depict a broad European context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares the electricity, heating, and cooling sectors at national level for various European countries. Annual energy demands are compared for all 28 EU countries, while peak hourly demands are compared for four countries that vary significantly. The results indicate that the heat demand is currently the largest of the three demand types considered in terms of both annual and peak demands: it is the largest annual demand in 25 of the 28 EU countries, and it represents the largest peak demand in all four countries analysed. Electricity, heating, and cooling demands are all likely to change significantly in the future with increasing electrification, energy efficiency (e.g. building insulation), and improved comfort (especially for cooling). Some extreme scenarios are presented here to quantify the potential impact of these changes on the electricity sector, with results revealing that the demand for electricity could double compared to today, depending on how these changes occur. Considering the scale of additional electricity required to electrify future heating and cooling demands, heat pumps should be prioritised over electric heating and other alternatives, such as district heating and cooling, will likely be required to minimise the strain on the electricity grid in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The resource quality and the temporal generation pattern of variable renewable energy sources vary significantly across Europe. In this paper spatial distributions of renewable assets are explored which exploit this heterogeneity to lower the total system costs for a high level of renewable electricity in Europe. Several intuitive heuristic algorithms, optimal portfolio theory and a local search algorithm are used to find optimal distributions of renewable generation capacities that minimise the total costs of backup, transmission and renewable capacity simultaneously. Using current cost projections, an optimal heterogeneous distribution favours onshore wind, particularly in countries bordering the North Sea, which results in average electricity costs that are up to 11% lower than for a homogeneous reference distribution of renewables proportional to each country's mean load. The reduction becomes even larger, namely 18%, once the transmission capacities are put to zero in the homogeneous reference distribution. Heuristic algorithms to distribute renewable capacity based on each country's wind and solar capacity factors are shown to provide a satisfactory approximation to fully optimised renewable distributions, while maintaining the benefits of transparency and comprehensibility. The sensitivities of the results to changing costs of solar generation and gas supply as well as to the possible cross-sectoral usage of unavoidable curtailment energy are also examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interconnected electricity networks, or Supergrids, are considered as a possible solution to tackle challenges associated with near and far-future supply of electricity. These include, but are not limited to, reducing Green House Gas emissions and reliance on non-renewable fossil fuels. Supergrids can help to tackle these challenges, for example, by providing a reliable interconnection platform for wider application (and development) of renewable technologies. However, there is a range of risks and uncertainties associated with selecting appropriate interconnections. Heretofore these have been a hindrance to developing interconnections and therefore a Risk-Based Framework (RBF) which addresses these risks and uncertainties could encourage the wider uptake of Supergrids. This paper presents for the first time such a robust framework. The RBF comprises of four stages; (1) initial screening for selecting candidate countries, (2) risk identification, (3) risk semi-quantification and (4) risk quantification. In stage 4 the uncertainties associated with the identified risks are quantified using a cost-risk model under uncertainty based on a whole life appraisal approach. The usefulness of the approach, demonstrated using the UK as a case study, showed that greatest cost risks are associated with (a) regulatory framework, and (b) changes in energy policy. The most desirable interconnection option for the UK was identified as France. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest biomass is one of the few non-fossil and non-weather-dependent energy sources available in the Nordic countries. The future role of forest-based bioenergy is, however, unclear as biomass is a limited resource and has many alternative applications. This study analyses how fossil emissions and land-use is affected by forest bioenergy in the North-European heat and power sector, using an energy system model with endogenous capacity investments. The novelty of this paper lies in the detailed description of the substitution factors for different bioenergy levels toward a fully decarbonised energy system. The main results show that forest biomass remains important for heat production in the Nordic countries towards 2050 in a cost-optimal scenario. According to our model results, less use of forest biomass for heating will increase the use of fossil fuel, wind power, and power-to-heat in 2030, while in 2050 also solar PV will be used as a substitute for forest biomass. Implying that less use of forest biomass will increase the land use from wind and solar PV installation and increase and prolong the fossil carbon emission in the Nordic countries. • 1 TWh biomass reduces the emission with 0.10 mill ton of CO 2 in 2030 in North Europe. • The land-use substitution factor in North Europe is 18–47 km2/TWh biomass in 2050. • Forest biomass remains important for heat production towards 2050. • Excluding forest biomass from the energy sector increases emissions and land use. • Less use of biomass implies more use of land for wind installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing penetration of distributed energy resources is opening up opportunities for local energy management (LEM) – the coordination of decentralized energy supply, storage, transport, conversion and consumption within a given geographical area. Because European electricity market liberalization concentrates competition at the wholesale level, local energy management at the distribution level is likely to impose new roles and responsibilities on existing and/or new actors. This paper provides insights into the appropriateness of organizational models for flexibility management to guarantee retail competition and feasibility for upscaling. By means of a new analytical framework three projects in the Netherlands and one in Germany have been analysed. Both the local aggregator and dynamic pricing projects present potentials for retail competition and feasibility of upscaling in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methane from biomass is a well suited renewable energy carrier with a wide range of applications. The main technologies for its production out of biomass are biochemical conversion from the upgrading of biogas and thermochemical conversion by gasification and methanation. Presently there exists no methodology to compare the process alternatives for methane production from biomass. This paper investigates a comprehensive evaluation method based on a multi-criteria analysis. Due to the comparable well developed biomethane market in Europe, compared to other regions in the world, the study area was restricted to Europe. The weighting of the different criteria is carried out in two rounds as a pair-to-pair comparison of the criteria by experts from different technology fields in a Delphi-Survey. As a result, the prioritisation can be used to classify the biomass conversion technologies to convert biomass to biomethane. According to the weightings given by experts, the two criteria energy efficiency and production costs are of great importance compared to the other criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reanalysis models are rapidly gaining popularity for simulating wind power output due to their convenience and global coverage. However, they should only be relied upon once thoroughly proven. This paper reports the first international validation of reanalysis for wind energy, testing NASA's MERRA and MERRA-2 in 23 European countries. Both reanalyses suffer significant spatial bias, overestimating wind output by 50% in northwest Europe and underestimating by 30% in the Mediterranean. We derive national correction factors, and show that after calibration national hourly output can be modelled with R 2 above 0.95. Our underlying data are made freely available to aid future research. We then assess Europe's wind resources with twenty-year simulations of the current and potential future fleets. Europe's current average capacity factor is 24.2%, with countries ranging from 19.5% (Germany) to 32.4% (Britain). Capacity factors are rising due to improving technology and locations; for example, Britain's wind fleet is now 23% more productive than in 2005. Based on the current planning pipeline, we estimate Europe's average capacity factor could increase by nearly a third to 31.3%. Countries with large stakes in the North Sea will see significant gains, with Britain's average capacity factor rising to 39.4% and Germany's to 29.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A considerable growth of large-scale offshore wind farms (OWF) is noticeable in Europe mainly due to advances in wind turbines and foundation structures, which have improved their economic conditions and contributed to the implementation of offshore plants. It is expected that the installed capacity will continue to increase, since the European Union aims at reaching about 100 GW of offshore wind capacity by 2030. OWF have many challenges in terms of cost reduction and technology. Due to these issues, it is important to have a comprehensive understanding of the current situation and the future trends of OWF. This paper analyses the current status and the trends of large-scale OWF with an installed capacity above 150 MW in Europe. The results show the trends on wind turbine size and capacity, turbine model, distance to shore, water depth, investment cost, type of foundation, transmission technology, and voltage array systems among others. This paper gathers the latest information about the topic, deducing future trends from the evaluation of OWF fully commissioned, authorized or under construction. • Analysis of large-scale offshore wind farms in operation or projected in Europe. • New offshore wind farms are being placed away from the coast into deeper waters. • Increasing power and voltage of wind turbines and internal collection systems. • Offshore wind energy costs are decreasing and becoming more competitive. • Direct current is the preferred transmission for long distances to the shore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen will be a central cross-sectoral energy carrier in the decarbonization of the European energy system. This paper investigates how a large-scale deployment of green hydrogen production affects the investments in transmission and generation towards 2060, analyzes the North Sea area with the main offshore wind projects, and assesses the development of an offshore energy hub. Results indicate that the hydrogen deployment has a tremendous impact on the grid development in Europe and in the North Sea. Findings indicate that total power generation capacity increases around 50%. The offshore energy hub acts mainly as a power transmission asset, leads to a reduction in total generation capacity, and is central to unlock the offshore wind potential in the North Sea. The effect of hydrogen deployment on power prices is multifaceted. In regions where power prices have typically been lower than elsewhere in Europe, it is observed that hydrogen increases the power price considerably. However, as hydrogen flexibility relieves stress in high-demand periods for the grid, power prices decrease in average for some countries. This suggests that while the deployment of green hydrogen will lead to a significant increase in power demand, power prices will not necessarily experience a large increase. • Green hydrogen economy requires 50% more European power generation in 2050. • North Sea is developed with at least 100 GW of offshore wind power capacity. • Hydrogen economy raises yearly average power price in Norway in 2050 by 50%. • Energy hub increases North Sea wind capacity by ca. 60%. • Hydrogen is mainly produced onshore, with total European capacity of 460 GW in 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Municipal solid waste has seen increasing annual volumes for many decades in contemporary Europe and constitutes, if not properly managed, an environmental problem due to local pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. From an energy perspective, waste is also an alternative fuel for power and heat generation; energy recovery from waste represents an effective measure to reduce landfilling and avoid disposal emissions while simultaneously reducing the equivalent demand for primary energy supply. A key factor for obtaining the full synergetic benefits of this energy recovery is the presence of local heat distribution infrastructures, without which no large-scale recovery and utilisation of excess heat is possible. In this paper, which aims to estimate municipal solid waste volumes available for heat recovery in European district heating systems in 2030, a literature and data review is performed to establish and assess current and future EU (European Union) waste generation and management. Main conclusions are that more heat can be recovered from current Waste-to-Energy facilities operating at low average heat recovery efficiencies, that efficient incineration capacity is geographically concentrated, and that waste available for heat recovery in 2030 is equally determined by total generation volumes by this year as by future EU deployment levels of district heating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In all European countries the energy and building related legislature stand for energy refurbishment of existing building stock. Depending on the economical situation of countries there are different national programs that help owners to invest in energy related refurbishments of their houses or flats. The financial support is given only in case of a certain payback time, which should be obtained by the proposed project. The payback time for heating related investments in Hungary is calculated based on the theoretical degree day curve, which can lead to inaccurate results. Thus in this paper a long-term analysis of heating degree day, done for Debrecen (the second largest city of Hungary), is presented. We focused our analysis on residential buildings. It was found that the degree day has important variations during the analysed decades, which can lead to deviations of energy consumption up to 15–18%. Furthermore, taking into account the heat island effects in Debrecen, it was proven that differences of about 22% can be obtained between real degree day values in different zones of the city. The interrelation between specific heat gains and balance point temperature, respectively the effects of glazed area of the facades on the balance point temperature was discussed. It was found that for buildings with similar thermal characteristics of the envelope and the same values of specific heat gains, the balance point temperature can be even double for a detached house compared with a block of flats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In order to reduce carbon emissions, great efforts are required to optimise the processes and solve the main technical and economic problems which currently limit a large-scale diffusion of CCS (carbon capture and storage) technologies. In this paper, the main results of a techno-economic comparison between USCPC or USC plants (ultra supercritical pulverised coal combustion) with and without CCS are presented. In this study, a few related questions about the development of CCS and power generation technologies in SEE (South East Europe) are answered. The main questions considered are: (1) what are the current cost estimates for building a new entrant power plant with an installed CCS system compared to a typical USC power plant (2) what is the breakeven carbon-dioxide price to justify CCS investment for USCPC power plants. To answer these questions, a LCOE (levelised cost of electricity) model is built for the power plants in study, with assumptions best representing the current costs and technologies in the EU (European Union). Then, a sensitivity analysis of some of the key parameters of the LCOE to reveal their impact on the financial viability of the project is done. The technical model of the plant is implemented in the database of the SEE REM (South East Europe Regional Electricity Market) in order to evaluate its performance on the electricity market and results gained are analysed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: DR (Demand response) measures typically aim at an improved utilization of power plant and grid capacities. In energy systems mainly relying on photovoltaic and wind power, DR may furthermore contribute to system stability and increase the renewable energy share. In this paper, an assessment of the theoretical DR potential in Europe is presented. Special attention is given to temporal availability and geographic distribution of flexible loads. Based on industrial production and electricity consumption statistics, as well as periodic and temperature-dependent load profiles, possible load reduction and increase is estimated for each hour of the year. The analysis identifies substantial DR potentials in all consumer sectors. They add up to a minimum load reduction of 61 GW and a minimum load increase of 68 GW, available in every hour of the year. The overall potential features significant variations during the year, which are characteristic for specific consumers and countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A novel experimental approach of inter- and intramodel comparisons is conducted with five power market models to give recommendations for modelers working on decarbonization pathways of Europe until 2050. The experiments investigate the impact of model type (optimization vs. simulation), planning horizon (intertemporal vs. myopic), temporal resolution (8760 vs. 384 h), and spatial resolution (28 countries vs. 12 mega-regions). The model type fundamentally determines the evolution of capacity expansion. Planning horizon (assumed foresight of firms) plays a minor role for scenarios with high carbon prices. For low carbon prices in turn, results from myopic models deviate considerably from those of intertemporal models. Lower temporal and spatial resolutions foster wind power via storage and via neglected transmission boundaries, respectively. Using simulation instead of optimization frameworks, a shorter planning horizon of firms, or lower temporal and spatial resolutions might be necessary to reduce the computational complexity. This paper delivers recommendations on how to limit the discrepancies in such cases. • Comparison of five power market models with harmonized input data and model features. • Evaluating the role of model type, planning horizon, spatial and temporal resolution. • Model type decisive for investment decisions. • Myopic modeling hardly changes variable renewable energy expansion but might favor conventional power plants. • Spatial and temporal resolution crucial for ease of variable renewable energy integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The increase in PV (photovoltaic) capacities in Germany had since 2011 on some days already significant impacts on spot market prices at the German electricity exchange. The core objective of this paper is to investigate the possible effects of a further uptake of PV on the prices in electricity markets. We analyze two major effects: (i) the direct impact of PV at specific times of the year when PV shifts the supply curve of conventional electricity virtually out of the market, leading to temporarily very low market prices close to Zero; (ii) the indirect impact of PV (and wind) on the costs at which fossil capacities are offered at times when renewable energy sources are scarce. The major effects of these developments on the electricity markets will be: (i) a much higher price volatility from hour-to-hour and day-to-day; (ii) higher prices for electricity from fossil capacities and storage technologies for balancing the intermittent renewable generation; and (iii) growth of balancing markets and intensified competition at the level of decentralized balancing organizations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: High altitude winds are considered to be, together with solar energy, the most promising renewable energy source in the future. Till date, there are no yet solutions available on the market but various concepts for utilizing high altitude winds are under research and are expected to be fully operational within next few years. In this paper, the potential of high altitude wind energy will be investigated for the SEE (Southeast Europe) region and mapped using available data and technologies. The data available from NCEP/DOE analysis will be used in terms of obtaining the high altitude wind speeds for the span of 30 years, from 1980 to 2010, which are then processed for easier visualization. The obtained data is plotted against the available geographic data which could limit the positioning of the system (settlements, traffic…). The result of this work will display the “optimal” locations for these kinds of facilities for the Southeast Europe region. Such map could be beneficial for all future plans of utilizing this high altitude winds as a power source. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Hydrogen has a wide range of applications. In view of the environmental benefits, hydrogen can be produced by decarbonized means. When alkaline electrolysis is the selected process, extra value is offered by flexible operation that could bring both; an opportunity to reduce the cost of hydrogen produced (by consuming electricity during off-peak hours, and stopping the process during peak hours) and also a complementary tool to help balancing of the electric system. This paper assesses the profitability of market-driven operation for three different markets: France, Germany and Spain, with an analysis on the spot market. The market that exhibits the biggest potential in terms of profitability thanks to flexible operation is the French one, for each studied year. France is also the country that has the smallest installed renewable capacity amongst three considered countries. The gain on the hydrogen production cost allowed by the optimization is less than 3%. Hence, market-driven operation does not seem highly favourable to valorize fluctuating hydrogen production, when only the market price opportunities are considered. The balancing tool provided by the electrolysis system needs to be specifically valorized, in order to make flexible operation profitable. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The paper presents a technique for detection of “bottlenecks” in gas transportation networks in emergency situations. The described approach makes it possible to formulate the optimal ways to tackle negative consequences for gas consumers. The technique is based on the “Oil and Gas” software developed at Energy Systems Institute SB RAS and is exemplified with the European gas pipeline network. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents a mixed activity-based costing decision (MABCD) model for green airline fleet planning under the constraints of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), in which activity-based costing (ABC) model is incorporated with a modified product-mix decision model for total operating costs of individual flights under EU ETS constraints. A numerical example for comparing cost-effectiveness between the B747-400 airline and the A380 airline in one of the busiest route between Asia and Europe is demonstrated. It is shown that subject to different changes of revenue tone kilometers (RTK), the cost trends of carbon emissions and the changes in profits of different flight routes appear to be similar. Moreover, it is also shown that when the RTK are higher, a choice of a wider-bodied aircraft could lead to higher profits. Finally, it is shown that without the pre-assumptions of considering more complicated routes and financing methods, a self-purchased aircraft appears to contribute more profits. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: European energy policy pursues the objective of a sustainable, competitive and secure supply of energy. In 2007, the European Commission adopted an energy policy for Europe, which was supported by several documents on different aspects of energy and included an action plan to meet the major energy challenges Europe has to face. A farsighted diversified yearly mix of energies was suggested to countries, aiming at increasing security of supply and efficiency, but a wide and contemporary view of energy interchanges between states was not available. In a previous work of the same authors, energy import/export interchanges between European States were used to develop a geographic overview at one-glance. In this paper, the enhanced Interchange Energy Network (IEN) is investigated from a modelling point of view, as a Small-World Net, by supposing that connections can exist between States with a probability depending also on economic/political relations between countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Rising import dependency, increasing market liberalization and cross-border trade and security of supply fears facilitate investments in natural gas supply infrastructures in Europe. In order to ensure an efficient allocation of capital resources, it is important to identify congestion in the existing system and investment requirements based on economic principles. This paper first outlines an analytical framework for the identification of bottlenecks and the evaluation of transport capacities and the cost of congestion based on nodal prices. Secondly, an infrastructure model of the European gas market with high temporal and spatial granularity which exhibits the characteristics of the theoretical model is introduced. Parameterizing the model with the existing infrastructure and applying a demand and supply scenario for the year 2015, congestion mark-ups between countries in Europe are estimated. This approach indicates potential bottlenecks which might arise within the next five years and quantifies their economic costs. With only some temporary congestion, physical market integration is found to be high in Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, severe bottlenecks are identified and discussed. Implications for efficient investment decisions arising from the findings are examined in the context of the theoretical considerations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In transmission and distribution systems, the high number of installed transformers, a loss source in networks, suggests a good potential for energy savings. This paper presents how the Spanish Distribution regulation policy, Royal Decree 222/2008, affects the overall energy efficiency in distribution transformers. The objective of a utility is the maximization of the benefit, and in case of failures, to install a chosen transformer in order to maximize the profit. Here, a novel method to optimize energy efficiency, considering the constraints set by the Spanish Distribution regulation policy, is presented; its aim is to achieve the objectives of the utility when installing new transformers. The overall energy efficiency increase is a clear result that can help in meeting the requirements of European environmental plans, such as the ‘20–20–20’ action plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The well-to-wheels assessment is widely used in the automotive sector to analyze the efficiency and competitiveness of different powertrain/fuel options. The paper proposes a global index that takes into account both the energy and environmental aspects on an uniform basis, through the assignment of the costs associated to the energy and to the pollutant emissions. The European market is analyzed and other pollutants (NOx, PM and SOx) are added to the traditional well-to-wheels evaluations (energy and GHG). The proposed well-to-wheels global index offers a useful place-list that takes into account both energy and environmental aspects and, at the current market conditions, it results that the energy cost prevails (70–85%) over the environmental costs, and among the analyzed external costs, the main contribution is due to the GHG emissions. Natural gas-derived fuels seem to be the most promising. The global index for battery electric vehicle from a European mix are closely linked to the driving range. Conventional biofuels are very critical at present, while significant improvement of the well-to-wheels global index is foreseen for when new generation biofuels will be mature (2030 forecast). In short, even though the proposed global index is not an exhaustive index, it could be a useful tool for decision makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Over the last few years, load growth, increases in intermittent generation, declining technology costs and increasing recognition of the importance of customer behaviour in energy markets have brought about a change in the focus of Demand Response (DR) in Europe. The long standing programmes involving large industries, through interruptible tariffs and time of day pricing, have been increasingly complemented by programmes aimed at commercial and residential customer groups. Developments in DR vary substantially across Europe reflecting national conditions and triggered by different sets of policies, programmes and implementation schemes. This paper examines experiences within European countries as well as at European Union (EU) level, with the aim of understanding which factors have facilitated or impeded advances in DR. It describes initiatives, studies and policies of various European countries, with in-depth case studies of the UK, Italy and Spain. It is concluded that while business programmes, technical and economic potentials vary across Europe, there are common reasons as to why coordinated DR policies have been slow to emerge. This is because of the limited knowledge on DR energy saving capacities; high cost estimates for DR technologies and infrastructures; and policies focused on creating the conditions for liberalising the EU energy markets. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]