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Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) causes immune perturbations which may persist long term, and patients frequently report ongoing symptoms for months after recovery. We assessed immune activation at 3-12 months post hospital admission in 187 samples from 63 patients with mild, moderate, or severe disease and investigated whether it associates with long COVID. At 3 months, patients with severe disease displayed persistent activation of CD4 + and CD8 + T-cells, based on expression of HLA-DR, CD38, Ki67, and granzyme B, and elevated plasma levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-7, IL-17, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) compared to mild and/or moderate patients. Plasma from severe patients at 3 months caused T-cells from healthy donors to upregulate IL-15Rα, suggesting that plasma factors in severe patients may increase T-cell responsiveness to IL-15-driven bystander activation. Patients with severe disease reported a higher number of long COVID symptoms which did not however correlate with cellular immune activation/pro-inflammatory cytokines after adjusting for age, sex, and disease severity. Our data suggests that long COVID and persistent immune activation may correlate independently with severe disease., Competing Interests: MS, MG, FH, DA, AL, AL, EO, AH, HB, KH, RM, OP, LK, BM, AM, EM, EJ, RL, AG, AF, NM, AD, KG, LW, LR No competing interests declared, (© 2023, Santopaolo, Gregorova et al.)

Here, we describe the case of a COVID-19 patient who developed recurring ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa that acquired increasing levels of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in response to treatment. Metagenomic analysis revealed the AMR genotype, while immunological analysis revealed massive and escalating levels of T-cell activation. These were both SARS-CoV-2 and P. aeruginosa specific, and bystander activated, which may have contributed to this patient's persistent symptoms and radiological changes., Competing Interests: MG, DM, TB, JS, FH, MA, DA, MT, AH, HB, CR, MA, AD, MS, EO, AG, AF, LW, BA, RB, DA, DB, CM, JS, SN, CC, NL, MC, LR, RM No competing interests declared, (© 2020, Gregorova et al.)