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Artificial Intelligence (AI) plays an increasingly important role in language education; however, the trends, research issues, and applications of AI in language learning remain largely under-investigated. Accordingly, the present paper, using bibliometric analysis, investigates these issues via a review of 516 papers published between 2000 and 2019, focusing on how AI was integrated into language education. Findings revealed that the frequency of studies on AI-enhanced language education increased over the period. The USA and Arizona State University were the most active country and institution, respectively. The 10 most popular topics were: (1) automated writing evaluation; (2) intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) for reading and writing; (3) automated error detection; (4) computer-mediated communication; (5) personalized systems for language learning; (6) natural language and vocabulary learning; (7) web resources and web-based systems for language learning; (8) ITS for writing in English for specific purposes; (9) intelligent tutoring and assessment systems for pronunciation and speech training; and (10) affective states and emotions. The results also indicated that AI was frequently used to assist students in learning writing, reading, vocabulary, grammar, speaking, and listening. Natural language processing, automated speech recognition, and learner profiling were commonly applied to develop automated writing evaluation, personalized learning, and intelligent tutoring systems.

Personalized language learning (PLL), a popular approach to precision language education, plays an increasingly essential role in effective language education to meet diverse learner needs and expectations. Research on PLL has become an active sub-field of research on technology-enhanced language learning and artificial intelligence applications in education. Based on the PLL literature from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, this study identified trends and prominent research issues within the field from 2000 to 2019 using structural topic modeling and bibliometrics. Trend analysis of articles demonstrated increasing interest in PLL research. Journals such as "Educational Technology & Society" and "Computers & Education" had contributed much to PLL research. PLL associated closely with mobile learning, game-based learning, and online/web-based learning. Moreover, personalized feedback and recommendations were important issues in PLL. Additionally, there was an increasing interest in adopting learning analytics and artificial intelligence in PLL research. Results obtained could help practitioners and scholars better understand the trends and status of PLL research and become aware of the hot topics and future directions.

The enactment of embodied learning in the authentic classroom introduces new challenges. The educational system has yet to develop a clear vision or learning design models that would guide the implementation of embodied learning using digital technologies and manipulatives. This study presents an example of a learning design for technology-enhanced embodied learning in an authentic classroom. Three forms of physical embodiment (direct, surrogate and augmented) are enacted using a model consisting of a single educator and rotating across learning stations. The case study takes place in a multidisciplinary lesson around historical information. In this lesson, Year 4 primary school students (i) take virtual tours among the ruins of Archaic kingdoms using mobile VR headsets, (ii) use programmable floor robots to learn about the various occupations people had back then and (iii) create storyboards based on historical information using web-based digital tools. The study evaluates the technology-enhanced embodied learning experience from the perspective of the learners. Data from 34 students demonstrate learning gains, as well as positive perceptions of the learning experience in terms of their relationship with their teammates, their sense of personal development, and the overall classroom orchestration. We conclude with lessons learnt, limitations and suggestions for future work. With this study, we aim to spark a dialogue on how technology-enhanced embodied learning can be successfully enacted in real-world classrooms, highlighting the need for more studies in the intersection of technology, design and pedagogy.

Web enhanced active learning has been demonstrated to be an effective approach in Engineering Higher Education, as it provides students with more flexibility in dealing with the development of skills related to professional knowledge. However, students require a sufficient level of self-efficacy and control over their own learning, which might impact negatively on their effort and academic performance. Therefore, promoting self-regulated learning among students would help them to develop effective strategies they could adopt in planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning process. In this paper, a web-enhanced active learning approach is proposed which integrates a self-regulated learning strategy that supports Control Engineering students in managing their learning process. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach, a three-year quasi-experimental study was performed in the context of an undergraduate Automatic Control course at the Università Politecnica delle Marche, Italy. This involved 418 students and 4 teachers. Both quantitative and qualitative measurement tools were used for the evaluation. The results of the study confirmed the effectiveness of a learning design specifically tailored to implement self-regulated learning features in a web-enhanced active learning approach for undergraduate engineering students. Moreover, the qualitative-quantitative evaluation model proved to be effective in capturing and gauging a more comprehensive and detailed picture of the triggered self-regulated learning dynamics.

With the recent advances in information technologies, Learning Management Systems have taken on a significant role in providing educational resources. The successful use of these systems in higher education is important for the implementation, management and continuous improvement of e-learning services to increase the quality of learning. This study aimed to identify the factors affecting higher education students' behavioral intention towards Learning Management Systems. A research model was proposed based on the belief factors of the technology acceptance model; namely perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use and external factors including self-efficacy, enjoyment, subjective norm, satisfaction, and interactivity and control. Then, a self-reported questionnaire was distributed online. A total of 470 higher education students participated in the survey. The proposed structural model was assessed and validated using structural equation modeling, in particular the partial least square method. The predictors of behavioral intention were identified as perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, enjoyment, subjective norm, satisfaction, and interactivity and control with the validated structural model. The relationships between the influencing factors provided an insight about the students' behavioral intention towards the use of Learning Management Systems. It is expected that the academicians and practitioners will benefit from the design and findings of the current study in their future research.

With limited problem-solving capability and practical experience, novices have difficulties developing expert-like performance. It is important to make the complex problem-solving process visible to learners and provide them with necessary help throughout the process. This study explores the design and effects of a model-based learning approach implemented in a web-based learning environment that not only allows learners to capture and reflect on their problem-solving process in visual formats but also helps them to identify the gap between their performance and that of the expert for effective reflection and improvement. The proposed approach attempts to utilize expert knowledge to transform open-ended problem-solving experience into a systematic and deliberate effort towards expertise development. Twenty-five medical students participated in the study by using the proposed learning environment to complete a number of diagnostic problem-solving tasks. The results show that the approach positively affects students' achievements in subject knowledge, problem-solving performance, and perceptions and motivation for learning in the proposed learning environment.

This study explores how web-based scaffolding tools provide instructional support while implementing a socio-scientific inquiry (SSI) unit in a science classroom. This case study focused on how students used web-based scaffolding tools during SSI activities, and how students perceived the SSI unit and the scaffolding tools embedded in the SSI activities. A web-based SSI unit was developed and utilized in a technology-enhanced science classroom, and included three types of embedded annotations (definition, background information, thinking questions). The findings of this study suggest that students benefitted from web-based annotated scaffoldings in their individual reading and group discussions. The effective use of hard scaffolding may have contributed positively to students' engagement in the SSI activities and allowed students to easily explore a variety of context-related hyperlinked resources. In addition, the hard scaffolding tools allowed the teacher greater flexibility to effectively monitor students' learning progress, evaluate students' understanding of the topic, and provide guidance as needed through questioning. A holistic and dynamic approach is recommended when teachers and instructional designers consider how web-based hard scaffolding tools might function to assist students' learning in SSI.

The research objectives of this study were to examine the individual and combined predictive effects of the quality of online peer-feedback provided and received on primary school students' quality of question-generation. A correlational study was adopted, and performance data from 213 fifth-grade students engaged in online question-generation and peer assessment for six weeks were analysed using hierarchical multiple regression, with the dependent variable of scores on question-generation and independent variables of scores on peer-feedback provided and received. The results from the two-step hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the quality of peer-feedback provided and received, respectively, predicted students' quality of question-generation. Furthermore, the results from the three-step hierarchical regression analysis showed that the quality of peer-feedback provided and received in combination also predicted students' quality of question-generation. Details of the significance of this study are provided, as well as suggestions for instructional implementations.

Few studies have explored the learning difficulties and misconceptions that students encounter when using information and communication technology for e-learning. To address this issue, this research developed a system for evaluating the learning efficiency of medical students by applying two-tier diagnosis assessment. The effectiveness of the proposed system was evaluated in 11 resident doctors of dermatology enrolled according to a one-group pre- and post-test experimental design. After using the proposed e-learning system, the resident doctors had significantly improved learning efficiency and high satisfaction with the system functions. Although the number of subjects in this study was low, the significant improvements in clinical skills observed at the end of the educational training program indicate that the proposed integrated e-learning system is user-friendly and effective for self-education in the diagnosis skills required by medical students and dermatology residents.

This study reports on the differences in motivation, vocabulary gain, and perceptions on using or the Google Docs between individual and collaborative learning at a tertiary level. Two classes of English-as-a-Foreign Language (EFL) students were recruited and each class was randomly assigned into one of the two groups--individuals or collaborators. The results of the study are in line with those of previous studies in that the collaborators performed better than the individuals regarding vocabulary gain. The former was more likely than the latter to be motivated to acquire knowledge and to perceive the learning experience more positively. However, the results of this study suggest that, like many other Web 2.0 applications in support of peer scaffolding and knowledge co-construction, Google Docs plays a pivotal role in enhancing students' motivation and involvement.

An important issue in personalized learning is to provide learners with customized learning according to their learning characteristics. This paper focused attention on scheming learning map as follows. The learning goal can be achieved via different pathways based on alternative materials, which have the relationships of prerequisite, dependence, and sequence. Besides, owing to distinct learner characteristics, different learning materials with various forms have distinct effects on learners, such as learning performance (benefit objective), learning time (cost objective), and so forth. Accordingly, scheming learning map is not only the NP-hard combination problem, but also the trade-off multiple objectives optimization. More importantly, it is not only impossible for instructors to scheme the fitting learning maps for learners, but also difficult and time-consuming for learners to scheme their fitting learning maps by themselves. Hence, this paper first proposed an innovative approach based on enhanced genetic algorithm (GA) with Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), to facilitate the search for the near-optimal solution of learning map. Moreover, a web-based learning management system based on the proposed approach was developed to help instructors facilitate the customized learning itineraries for learners. The experimental results from simulations showed that, not only in terms of search effectiveness and solution quality the proposed approach significantly is superior to a genetic algorithm and a Random method, but also in terms of search efficiency the proposed approach significantly is superior to a genetic algorithm. That is, the developed system with the proposed approach is able to efficiently scheme the learning map with reliable and high quality. Consequently, the instructors and learners can concentrate on their tasks.

Different approaches have explored how to provide seamless learning across multiple ICT-enabled physical and virtual spaces, including three-dimensional virtual worlds (3DVW). However, these approaches present limitations that may reduce their acceptance in authentic educational practice: The difficulties of authoring and sharing teacher-created designs across different 3DVW platforms, or the lack of integration of 3DVWs with existing technologies in the classroom ecosystem (e.g., widespread web-based learning platforms such as Moodle, or mobile augmented reality applications). Focusing on a specific kind of 3DVW (virtual globes, such as Google Earth, used like 3DVWs), we propose a system that enables teachers to deploy across-spaces learning situations, which can be authored with a plethora of existing learning design tools, that involve different common web-based learning platforms, mobile AR applications and multiple kinds of virtual globes. A prototype of the architecture has been developed to evaluate this novel approach. The mixed-methods evaluation performed comprised both a feature analysis and a study where a teacher deployed an authentic across-spaces learning situation including Google Earth used as a 3DVW. Such evaluation shows that the system enables teachers deploy learning situations over different technological ecosystems composed by physical and web spaces, as well as by 3DVWs.

Computer programming is an important skill for engineering and computer science students. However, teaching and learning programming concepts and skills has been recognized as a great challenge to both teachers and students. Therefore, the development of effective learning strategies and environments for programming courses has become an important issue. To address this issue, this study proposes a two-tier test-based learning system to enhance students' learning outcomes in computer-programming courses. We conducted an experiment on a college computer-programming course to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method. The experimental results show that the proposed method not only improves the students' attitude toward learning the programming language, but also enhances their programming skills.

Blended learning as an instructional approach is getting more attention in the educational landscape and has been researched thoroughly. Yet, this study reports the results of an innovation project aiming to gain insight into three different scenarios of applying web-based lectures: as preparation for face-to-face practical exercises, as a repetition of parts of the course, and as an extension of the course. Both the benefits regarding students' satisfaction, perceived educational effects and the effect on student characteristics were investigated. Results indicate that all students evaluate web-based technology as an added value in higher education. Yet, comparison of the three application scenarios showed that web-based lectures are evaluated most positively when used as course preparation whereas when used as course extension, they were appreciated the least. However, there are indications that student characteristics could play a significant role in the level of appreciation of web-based lectures. We conclude that the potential of web-based lectures lies in their adaptability for use in several scenarios according to educational goals.

This paper describes a system for research on the behaviour of students taking online drills. The system is accessible and free to use for anyone with web access. Based on open source software, the teaching material is licensed under a Creative Commons License. The system has been used for computer-assisted education in statistics, mathematics and fishery science. It offers a unique way to structure and link material, including interactive drills with a purpose of increasing learning rather than mere evaluation. It is of interest to investigate what affects how students learn in such an environment, for example how the system entices students to continue to work. One research question is therefore: When do learners decide to stop requesting drill items? A case study has been conducted including 316 students in an undergraduate course in calculus. Analysis of the data showed that the probability of stopping increases with higher grades but decreases with increased difficulty and the number of questions answered. Also, the probability of stopping decreases if the last question was answered correctly in comparison to when the last question was answered incorrectly.

This study investigated how question prompts and feedback influenced knowledge acquisition and cognitive load when learning Newtonian mechanics within a web-based multimedia module. Participants were one hundred eighteen 9th grade students who were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions, forming a 2 x 2 factorial design with the presence or absence of question prompts as one factor and types of instructional feedback as the other. With regard to knowledge acquisition, the findings revealed a significant main effect of question prompts and a significant interaction between question prompts and feedback. With regard to cognitive load, the results found a significant interaction between question prompts and feedback. Students who received problem-solving question prompts and corrective feedback achieved better performance and perceived less cognitive load. Implications for designing web-based science learning are discussed.

In the era of computer and communication technologies, fostering students' high-level thinking abilities has become an important educational objective. Engaging students in web information searching to answer a series of questions related to a target issue has been recognized as a helpful approach for promoting students' thinking processes. In this study, a contextual learning approach is employed in web information searching activities to improve students' learning achievement, attitudes and critical thinking ability. The participants were divided into an experimental group, which was guided to use Internet resources to complete problem-based learning tasks with the contextual learning approach, and a control group, which learned with the conventional web information searching approach that situated students in a pure web information searching environment to answer questions for the issue to be investigated. From the experimental results, it was found that the experimental group exhibited significantly better learning attitudes, learning achievement, and better critical thinking than the control group, suggesting the effectiveness of the integrated contextual and web information searching approach in terms of helping students use Internet resources to investigate the target issue in depth.

In Taiwan elementary schools, Scratch programming has been taught for more than four years. Previous studies have shown that personal annotations is a useful learning method that improve learning performance. An annotation-based Scratch programming (ASP) system provides for the creation, share, and review of annotations and homework solutions in the interface of Scratch programming. In addition, we combine the ASP system with the problem solving-based teaching approach in Scratch programming pedagogy, which boosts cognition development and enhances learning achievements. This study is aimed at exploring the effects of annotations and homework on learning achievement. A quasi-experimental method was used with elementary school students in a Scratch programming course over a 4-month period. The experimental results revealed that students' thoughts and solutions in solving homework assignments have a significant influence on learning achievement. We further investigated that only making annotations in solving homework activities, among all other variables (the quantity of annotations, the quantity of one's own annotations reviewed, the quantity of peers' annotations reviewed, the quantity of one's own homework solutions reviewed, and the quantity of peers' homework solutions reviewed), can significantly predict learning achievements.

This study compares an interactive learning manager for graphic engineering to develop spatial vision (ILMAGE_SV) to traditional methods. ILMAGE_SV is an asynchronous web-based learning tool that allows the manipulation of objects with a 3D viewer, self-evaluation, and continuous assessment. In addition, student learning may be monitored, which saves a significant amount of time for the teacher, as both correction and grading are automatically performed. Our aim in this study is to establish whether the application is an effective tool for learning spatial visualization. Students of engineering graphics following an industrial engineering degree course at the University of Burgos (Spain) participated in a pilot project over two academic years. The students were separated into two groups: an experimental group that studied with the ILMAGE_SV web application and a control group taught with traditional methods. Our study demonstrates that the results of both methods, with regard to the development of spatial vision, are in general equal. Nevertheless, ILMAGE_SV is more efficient for students who experience greater difficulties with spatial vision and for students with no prior knowledge of technical drawing.

The purpose of this study was to develop a self-reported measure of instructor satisfaction within the context of teaching in the online environment and to validate the instrument's psychometric properties. Upon conducting an expert panel review and pilot study, the instrument was administered to 168 instructors who taught courses in the online environment at a large, public western university. Results of an exploratory factor analysis confirmed a hypothesized five-factor model: Instructor-to-Student Interaction, Affordances, Institutional Support, Student-to-Student Interaction, and Course Design/Development/Teaching. The 27-item Online Instructor Satisfaction Measure (OISM) proved to be psychometrically sound with good factor structure and high internal reliability coefficients for the instrument and its subscales.

Though discussion of the teacher factor in ICT-enabled science learning abounds in the literature, the investigation of Teacher Enactments (TEs) of ICT-facilitated lessons through exploring teaching practices is still under-explored and under-recognized. Current studies are still lacking in evidence-based findings of TEs based on the investigation of teaching practices. This study explores the TEs of science lessons supported by a web-based learning platform, namely, Collaborative Science Inquiry (CSI), by two experienced teachers in their respective classes. The CSI system is built on a model-based inquiry framework integrated with Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) elements. The CSI lessons selected were on the topic of "Diffusion and Osmosis" in Grade 7. Through examining the ways in which teachers instructed, questioned, and interacted with the students, we identified the commonalities and differences in TEs that subsequently influenced students' conceptual understanding and their involvement in collaborative inquiry. The factors that contributed to these discrepancies were then discussed. Implications were proposed to inform the use of complex ICT tools in the science classroom.

The major purpose of this study was to develop a survey to measure elementary school teachers' self-efficacy for web-based professional development. Based on interviews with eight elementary school teachers, three scales of web-based professional development self-efficacy (WPDSE) were formed, namely, general self-efficacy (measuring teachers' general capabilities of using Internet tools or completing basic web-based tasks), interaction self-efficacy (assessing teachers' perceived abilities of engaging in interactions in online professional development activities), and applying self-efficacy (evaluating teachers' confidence level of applying what they have learned in web-based professional development to their future teaching). The results of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) indicated that the three scales of WPDSE arising from the interviews and the Cronbach alpha values, ranging from 0.92 to 0.85, were acceptable. Subsequently, a large-scale survey was conducted to examine the relationships between teachers' self-efficacy and attitudes toward web-based professional development with a sample of 214 elementary school teachers in Taiwan using a questionnaire that included WPDSE and an established scale for measuring attitudes toward web-based professional development (AWPD). The results indicated that teachers' self-efficacy played a positive role in their attitudes towards web-based professional development. The results also indicated that teachers' confidence in their interaction self-efficacy and in their applying self-efficacy was more important than their confidence in their general self-efficacy in predicting their attitudes toward web-based professional development. Implications of the study findings were also discussed.

Programming assignments are commonly used in computer science education to encourage students to practice target concepts and evaluate their learning status. Ensuring students are engaged in such assignments is critical in attracting and retaining students. To this end, WebHat, a service-based program evaluation platform, is introduced in this work to support programming assignment practice. WebHat provides students with immediate assistance via online evaluation services and helps teaching staff monitor student status and progress. Based on the results of this system, teaching staff can dynamically adjust, if necessary, online evaluation services to provide further help to enhance student engagement in the ongoing assignment. To demonstrate the effectiveness of WebHat, an empirical study is conducted with freshman students as the subjects during the "Introduction to Computer Science" course. The results show that students are encouraged to start working on their assignments earlier and develop programs in the desired direction with the aid of the dynamically adjusted online evaluation services. WebHat thus enables students to submit better final products with regard to both functionality and quality. (Contains 2 tables and 7 figures.)

Nowadays, Web-based learning systems have become popular because they can provide multiple tools, among which hierarchical maps are widely used to support teaching and learning. However, traditional hierarchical maps may let learners easily get lost within large information space. This study proposes an animated hierarchical map to address this problem. To consider the effects of different instructional approaches, we also conducted an empirical study to examine how learners in collaborative learning and those in individual learning reacted differently to the animated hierarchical map and traditional hierarchical map. A questionnaire, which was designed based on Nielsen's heuristics, was applied to examine learners' reactions to the proposed animated hierarchical map. The results show that the proposed animated hierarchical map is generally better than the traditional hierarchical map but the effects on individual learning is limited.

This paper provides a content analysis of studies in technology-based learning (TBL) that were published in five Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) journals (i.e. "the British Journal of Educational Technology, Computers & Education, Educational Technology Research & Development, Educational Technology & Society, the Journal of Computer Assisted Learning") from 2000 to 2009. A total of 2,976 articles were cross-analyzed by three categories including research topic, research sample group, and learning domain. It was found that "Pedagogical design and theories" was the most popular research topic, "Higher Education" was the most utilized sample group, and "Non-specified" and "Engineering/Computer sciences" were the most selected learning domains in the last decade. However, topics in "Motivation, Perceptions and Attitudes" drew more attention in the latest five years, while the number of articles in "Digital game and intelligent toy enhanced learning" and "Mobile and Ubiquitous Learning" grew significantly between 2005 and 2009. Furthermore, the Chi-square analysis results showed that there were significant associations among these three categories. The results of the analysis provide insights for educators and researchers into research trends and patterns of technology-based learning. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)

This paper proposes the identification and use of principle-based pedagogical patterns to help teachers to translate design principles into actionable teaching activities, and to scaffold student learning with sufficient flexibility and creativity. A set of pedagogical patterns for networked Second language (L2) learning, categorized and undergirded by rapid collaborative knowledge improvement (RCKI) principles, has been extracted and articulated in our school-based research. The patterns are distilled from a series of over 60 Chinese language lessons conducted in real classrooms which are co-designed by teachers and researchers over a 3-year period in Singapore schools. Each principle-based pedagogical pattern is presented succinctly in a simple pattern language. Two classroom scenarios of collaborative activities are elucidated, embodying some of the patterns to provide a more grounded feel of how they are enacted in practice. RCKI principle-based pedagogical patterns inform the design of collaborative language learning activities in networked classrooms. Preliminary findings reveal that principle-based pedagogical patterns provide teachers a workable way to design RCKI activities and enable teachers to adopt, internalize and adapt them in classroom use. (Contains 1 table and 7 figures.)

The booming digital-content industry has resulted in an increasing number of e-learning Internet websites that provide online learning services. Recommendations for learning sites are used by diverse learners to identify the most appropriate learning resources. However, research into recommendations about learning has concentrated primarily on suggestions for teaching materials to be used in a particular learning program, and studies have focused on improving the techniques underlying these recommendations without addressing the possibilities for interdisciplinary learning or changes in learner preferences. This study implemented and evaluated a system that recommends interdisciplinary pedagogical resources while recognizing changes in the foci of educational efforts and interests. This system was designed to satisfy individualized learning demands by recommending the most suitable content within an interactive context. Evaluations of learners' attitudes and intentions after using the proposed system revealed widespread acceptance. Data analysis demonstrated that system stability and interface satisfaction were the key factors in learners' attitudes. Indeed, interface satisfaction was the strongest predictor of recommendation accuracy and content satisfaction. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

Self-regulated learning processes have a potential to enhance the motivation of knowledge workers to take part in learning and reflection about learning, and thus contribute to the resolution of an important research challenge in workplace learning. An equally important research challenge for the successful completion of each step of a self-regulatory process is to enable learners to be aware of the characteristics of their organizationally-embedded learning context. In this paper, we describe how a combination of pedagogy and Semantic Web-based technologies can be utilized to address the above two challenges. Specifically, we demonstrate the proposed solution through the Learn-B tool that leverages ontologies to support self-regulation in organizational learning. (Contains 3 tables and 2 figures.)

Enhancing students' problem-solving abilities has been recognized as an important and challenging issue for technology-enhanced learning. Thus, previous research has attempted to address this issue by developing various mechanisms, among which a cognitive apprenticeship model can particularly enhance students' abilities. However, it is not clear whether such a mechanism is suitable for every learner. Thus, this study examines the effects of human factors on problem-solving effectiveness in the cognitive apprenticeship model. Among various human factors, this study focuses on cognitive styles, with an emphasis on Witken's Field Dependence. The results indicate that Field Dependent learners can get great benefits from the cognitive apprenticeship model via collaborative learning. Implications for how to accommodate the needs of different cognitive style groups are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

This study aims to develop an electronic library-based learning environment to support teachers in developing web-based problem-solving activities and analyzing the online problem-solving behaviors of students. Two experiments were performed in this study. In study 1, an experiment on 103 elementary and high school teachers (the learning activity designers) has been conducted to understand their views toward an electronic library-based learning environment. The results showed that with this innovative approach, electronic libraries not only have the potential to support traditional in-class learning, but also can assist teachers in developing learning activities for training students in web-based problem-solving abilities. Moreover, teachers of different ages and backgrounds all readily accepted the new approach, in particular, the older and more experienced teachers showed even higher willingness to use the system than the younger and less experienced teachers. In study 2, a quasi-experiment on 62 elementary school students (experimental group with 31 students and control group with 31 students) has been undertaken on a natural science course for evaluating the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Experimental results showed that this innovative approach can improve the students' learning achievements and attitudes in comparisons with the conventional web-based learning approach. (Contains 6 tables and 8 figures.)

This study explored the reliability and validity of teacher assessment under a Web-based portfolio assessment environment (or Web-based teacher portfolio assessment). Participants were 72 eleventh graders taking the "Computer Application" course. The students perform portfolio creation, inspection, self- and peer-assessment using the Web-based portfolio assessment system; meanwhile, the teachers used the assessment tool to review students' portfolios and evaluate their learning performances. The results indicated that: 1) the Web-based portfolio teacher assessment achieved an acceptable level of reliability; 2) the Web-based portfolio teacher assessment, showing a strong level of inter-rater reliability and inner-rater reliability, can be regarded as a reliable assessment method; 3) the Web-based portfolio teacher assessment demonstrated an acceptable level of validity; 4) the portfolio scores were highly consistent with students' end-of-course examination scores, implying that Web-based portfolio teacher assessment is a valid assessment method. Future studies are recommended to gain further insight into the self-built portfolios created by digital tools (e.g. PowerPoint, Word, or Frontpage software), for which effective rubrics and reliability or validity of the assessment may be also provided. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Having engineers in microfabrication technologies educated has become much more difficult than having engineers educated in the traditional technologies, and this may be because of the high cost for acquirement of equipment, materials, and infrastructural means (i.e., cleaning rooms), all in addition to the hands-on practices that are often times time-consuming to perform. These factors pose challenges for improvements to be made in teaching and learning quality. The current study has designed an interactive learning system to support self-directed learning of microfabrication technology with both the technical and the functional viewpoints taken into consideration, along with evaluated results obtained from the end-users. The current study applied technology in virtual-reality in order for interactions to be carried out on the Internet, which permits the students to become familiarized with the techniques used in microfabrication technology as they learn to operate machines. The courses offered in microfabrication technology were incorporated with the developed web-based learning system, where effects of the blended methodology on student learning result were examined. (Contains 10 tables and 3 figures.)

The aim of this paper is to describe a digital game with an educational purpose in the subject of computer programming, which enables students to reinforce and improve their abilities on the concepts of sequencing, defined iteration and nesting. For its design, a problem solving approach was followed and a score comparing mechanism was implemented in order to encourage students to analyze their solutions and look for better ones. To validate the game, a study with a 123 students sample was made, which did not only demonstrate students interest on the approach but also its educational effectiveness. (Contains 6 tables and 2 figures.)

This study developed an educational online game, Super Delivery, targeting knowledge about saving electricity, and conducted case studies of eight sixth-grade students using this game to explore the factors influencing the effectiveness of students' knowledge acquisition in digital game-based learning (DGBL). This study followed Miles and Huberman's (1994) suggested procedure to analyze qualitative data and find the patterns across cases. Based on the analysis of the case-ordered predictor-outcome matrix and diverse evidence including qualitative and quantitative data, a casual map and a decision tree were constructed to explain why differences in the effectiveness of knowledge acquisition existed among the study participants. It was found that many factors interactively influence students' effectiveness of knowledge acquisition in DGBL. Students' learning motivation, learning ability, and playing skill could be key factors that collectively influence the effectiveness of knowledge acquisition in DGBL. Also, students' learning motivation, learning ability, and playing skill were affected by their playing motivation, prior knowledge, as well as online game experience respectively. The results of this study may help teachers consider how effectively utilizing an educational game for enhancing students' learning effectiveness in DGBL. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

Combining adaptive hypermedia methods with strategies proposed by instructional theory and motivation models, an adaptable tutorial was designed and developed. The aim of this study was to assess whether the goals of an adaptable tutorial, which individualized instruction based on student motivation and prior knowledge, were being met (i.e. knowledge gains and motivation gains) and to identify weak or problematic areas, in terms of usability, where the tutorial could be improved. A total of 186 undergraduate students participated in two stages of this study. The data were obtained through questionnaires, surveys, focus group interviews, and system logs. Preliminary results indicated that overall students were pleased with their experiences however, certain groups of students benefited more than others. (Contains 2 tables.)

The success of Web 2.0 inspires e-learning to evolve into e-learning 2.0, which exploits collective intelligence to achieve user-centric learning. However, searching for suitable learning paths and content for achieving a learning goal is time consuming and troublesome on e-learning 2.0 platforms. Therefore, introducing formal learning in these platforms to provide learning guidance is important. Adaptive learning mechanisms are useful to provide learning guidance based on individual differences. However, most adaptive learning systems provide learning paths and content based on the views of a few designers or experts. To tackle these problems this research proposes a user-centric adaptive learning system (UALS) that uses sequential pattern mining to construct adaptive learning paths based on users' collective intelligence and employs Item Response Theory (IRT) with collaborative voting approach to estimate learners' abilities for recommending adaptive materials. The experimental results show that the effectiveness of user-centric adaptive learning is comparable to expert-designed learning and learners are more satisfied and learn efficiently. The guidelines to design e-learning 2.0 platforms are also proposed. (Contains 9 tables and 2 figures.)

In the era of the Internet, factors which influence effective learning in a Web-based learning environment are well worth exploring. In addition to knowledge acquisition and skills training, affect is also an important factor, since successful learning requires excellent affective performance. Thus this study focuses on learners' affective performance in Web-based learning. An initial description of the personality traits relating to entrepreneurship and Web-based learning was formulated and then examined with a Delphi survey. The findings show that certain personality traits relating to entrepreneurship are also associated with successful learning in Web-based learning. This study identified four dimensions and ten components which together constitute the metaphor of entrepreneurship in Web-based learning. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

In this study, we have investigated developmental patterns of virtual groups in the e-learning environment. Our findings suggest that for virtual groups formed for the purpose of e-learning, dependency and inclusion characterize the initial stage of group development, as such characteristics reinforce cooperative relationships and help to build a stronger social bond among group members. This is followed by the second stage, swift work, which enables participants to labor as a team and facilitates continual collaboration among members. However, the third stage, conflict, is inevitable, as conflicts provide important diagnostic evidence for each member to assess and adjust his or her values and preference. Finally, by overcoming conflicts, partners build strong bonding, which fosters intimate communication and provides many opportunities for frequent interactions that demonstrate concern and desire to satisfy the needs and wishes of one another. Our finding suggests that initial active dependency interactions in the first period provide a sense of coherence. Accordingly, the instructor of a virtual learning system should encourage learners to express their concern for one another in order quickly to build strong norms. In addition, as work intensifies, the instructor could aim to support both the effective interaction channels of groups as well as their task-focused activities. Finally, to improve members' involvement and information sharing, the instructor could provide feedback to groups regarding their level of interactivity and encourage members to remind each other about the quality and quantity of individual contribution. (Contains 8 figures.)

This study investigated an innovative approach of program evaluation through analyses of student learning logs, demographic data, and end-of-course evaluation surveys in an online K-12 supplemental program. The results support the development of a program evaluation model for decision making on teaching and learning at the K-12 level. A case study was conducted with a total of 7,539 students (whose activities resulted in 23,854,527 learning logs in 883 courses). Clustering analysis was applied to reveal students' shared characteristics, and decision tree analysis was applied to predict student performance and satisfaction levels toward course and instructor. This study demonstrated how data mining can be incorporated into program evaluation in order to generate in-depth information for decision making. In addition, it explored potential EDM applications at the K-12 level that have already been broadly adopted in higher education institutions. (Contains 6 figures and 4 tables.)

The aim of this study was to apply Speech-to-Text Recognition (STR) in an effort to improve learning performance in an online synchronous cyber classroom environment. Students' perceptions and their behavioral intentions toward using STR and the effectiveness of applying STR in synchronous cyber classrooms were also investigated. After the experiment, students from the experimental group perceived that the STR mechanism was easy to use and useful for one-way lectures as well as for individual learning. Most students also expressed that they were highly motivated to use STR as a learning tool in the future. Statistical results showed moderate improvement in the experimental groups' performance over the control group on homework accomplishments. However, once the students in the experimental group became familiar with the STR-generated texts and used them as learning tools, they significantly outperformed the control group students in post-test results. Interviews with participating students revealed that STR-generated texts were beneficial to learning during and after one-way lectures. Based on our findings, it is recommended that students apply STR to enhance their understanding of teachers' lectures in an online synchronous cyber classroom. Additionally, we recommend students should take advantages of the text generated by STR both during and after lectures. (Contains 6 tables and 2 figures.)

In this paper, we describe an approach to providing adaptivity in e-education courses. The primary goal of the paper is to enhance an existing e-education system, namely Moodle LMS, by developing a method for creating adaptive courses, and to compare its effectiveness with non-adaptive education approach. First, we defined the basic requirements of a course adaptation and the steps required to implement it. Based on the collected data, we identified the characteristic groups of students and then classified all participating students into these groups. The final adaptation of courses was performed in the distance education system of the University of Belgrade, in the Laboratory for e-business, Faculty of Organizational Sciences. Findings of the experimental study showed that the students' effectiveness and achievements in learning were higher when they attended courses adapted using the described method, in comparison to the non-adaptive e-learning courses. (Contains 4 tables and 6 figures.)

This study reports the impact of Recurrent On-Line Synchronous Scientific Argumentation learning on 8th grade students' scientific argumentation ability and conceptual change involving physical science. The control group (N = 76) were recruited to receive conventional instruction whereas the experimental group (N = 74) received the Recurrent On-Line Synchronous Scientific Argumentation program for about 25 physical science class periods of 45 minutes each, which is about one third of the physical science class periods in a semester. Results indicate that the experimental group significantly outperformed the conventional group on the post-Physical Science Conception Test and the Physical Science Dependent Argumentation Test. The quantity and quality of scientific arguments that the experimental group's students generated, in a series of pre- and post-argumentation questions, all improved across the seven topics. In addition, the experimental group's students successfully constructed more correct conceptions from pre- to post-argumentation questions across the seven topics. This clearly demonstrates that the experimental group's students' argumentation ability and conceptual change were both facilitated through receiving the Recurrent On-Line Synchronous Scientific Argumentation program. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

Web-based instruction programs are used by learners with diverse knowledge, skills and needs. These differences determine their preferences for the design of Web-based instruction programs and ultimately influence learners' success in using them. Cognitive style has been found to significantly affect learners' preferences of web-based instruction programs. However, the majority of previous studies focus on Field Dependence/Independence. Pask's Holist/Serialist dimension has conceptual links with Field Dependence/Independence but it is left mostly unstudied. Therefore, this study focuses on identifying how this dimension of cognitive style affects learner preferences of Web-based instruction programs. A data mining approach is used to illustrate the difference in preferences between Holists and Serialists. The findings show that there are clear differences in regard to content presentation and navigation support. A set of design features were then produced to help designers incorporate cognitive styles into the development of Web-based instruction programs to ensure that they can accommodate learners' different preferences. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.)

The best way to learn is by having a good teacher and the best language learning takes place when the learner is immersed in an environment where the language is natively spoken. 3D multi-user virtual worlds have been claimed to be useful for learning, and the field of exploiting them for education is becoming more and more active thanks to the availability of open source 3D multi-user virtual world development tools. The research question we wanted to respond to was whether we could deploy an engaging learning experience to foster communication skills within a 3D multi-user virtual world with minimum teacher's help. We base our instructional design on the combination of two constructivist learning strategies: situated learning and cooperative/collaborative learning. We extend the capabilities of the Open Wonderland development toolkit to provide natural text chatting with non-player characters, textual tagging of virtual objects, automatic reading of texts in learning sequences and the orchestration of learning activities to foster collaboration. Our preliminary evaluation of the experience deems it to be very promising. (Contains 3 figures.)

The interoperability of educational systems, encouraged by the development of specifications, standards and tools related to the Semantic Web is limited to the exchange of information in domain and student models. High system interoperability requires that a common framework be defined that represents the functional essence of educational systems. To address this need, we developed a generic model of educational systems that we called Cognitive Ontology of Educational Systems (COES) and we encoded it as functional reference ontology. It generalizes the educational system architecture, taking into account the cognitive perspective. This framework ranges from the usual e-learning systems to complex cognitive and adaptive hypermedia systems. This article describes the part of the COES related to domain knowledge representation and proposes an implementation called Generic Educational Knowledge (GEK). The GEK model is structured in a flexible way that allows the authors to codify instructional and semantic levels as needed. In order to test its feasibility, the model was applied in a distance learning course using two educational-knowledge models, GEK and ADLSCORM, and two educational systems, a traditional Web-Based Adaptive Hypermedia System and a Rich Internet Application with dialog interaction and cognitive monitoring. (Contains 13 figures.)

Geometry theorem proving involves skills that are difficult to learn. Instead of working with abstract and complicated representations, students might start with concrete, graphical representations. A proof tree is a graphical representation of a formal proof, with each node representing a proposition or given conditions. A computer-assisted learning environment called MR Geo is proposed to help students in learning to do theorem proving, with the help of multiple representations including problem description, static figure, dynamic geometry figure, formal proof and proof tree. Empirical results indicated that medium-achievement students enjoyed most in interacting with these representations and found them most helpful in learning geometry proofs while low-achievement students changed their attitudes of hating geometry theorem proving. (Contains 4 figures and 4 tables.)

Faculty members have different concerns as they integrate new technology into their teaching practices. The integration of Web-Based Instruction in higher-education settings will not be successful if these faculty concerns are not addressed. Four main stages of faculty concern (information, personal, management, and impact) were identified based on Hall's concern-based adoption model. By reviewing the literature on the diffusion of on-line education, the author identified support factors that may decrease faculty concerns about adopting WBI. System dynamics was used to examine associations between faculty concerns and these support factors. Based on these associations, a simulation model was built using STELLA to test the potential impact of support factors on the adoption of WBI by faculty members. The simulation model will aid educators and administrators in evaluating the impacts of support factors on the adoption of WBI. (Contains 2 tables and 6 figures.)

Many studies have reported the results of how students constructed texts, yet the cognitive process of how texts were constructed by sentences and how the constructive process was formulated and reformulated have rarely been addressed. This study aims to develop a computer-aided text construction system which supports 83 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university students in inserting sentences to construct texts with the scaffoldings of lexical cohesion and sentence relations. The students' actions in text construction were recorded in a "recording module" which showed their metacognitive process during the task. Results of this study revealed that the engagement in metacognitive process was rarely found in the students who made little progress through three online texts. The students who demonstrated the developmental progress in three texts were actively engaged in the metacognitive process to monitor and evaluate their text constructive problems. They then frequently revised the text by reselecting the sentences with the assistance of lexical cohesion and sentence relations. It was further found that students' metacognition could be strengthened by the text construction task. The increased engagement in metacognition, especially reselecting the sentences (revising), led to higher scores being obtained in text construction. (Contains 15 figures and 9 tables.)

This paper examines the effects of using weblog technologies to support cooperative learning in higher education. The study focused on the effects of features embedded in weblogs on social interactions, time lags, and cognitive loads. A quasi-experimental control-group research design was adopted. The participants were 115 undergraduates who were randomly divided into two groups. Students in the comparison group engaged in Jigsaw learning activities in the classroom, while the experimental group used a weblogging system during parts of the cooperative processes. Two findings were found. (1) Weblogs with Jigsaw cooperative learning activities, promoted better social interactions than those found in the comparison group. (2) RSS feeds and keyword searches made important contributions to cooperative learning, more than had been previously identified in the literature. These two components were found to alleviate cognitive overload and the consequences of time lag. Consequently, this study provides new insights into the role of weblogging in higher education. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)