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This paper focuses on the kinds of notations young children make for fractional numbers. The extant literature in the area of fractional numbers acknowledges children's difficulties in conceptualizing fractional numbers. Some of the research suggests possibly delaying an introduction to conventional notations for algorithms and fractions until children have developed a better understanding of fractional numbers (e.g., Hunting, 1987; Sáenz-Ludlow, 1994, 1995). Other research (e.g., Empson, 1999), however, acknowledges the interaction between conceptual understandings and the representations for those understandings. Following the latter line of thinking, this paper argues that children's notational competencies and conceptual understandings are intertwined, addressing the following research questions: (a) What kinds of notations do five and six-year-old children make for fractional numbers?; and (b) What can be learned about young children's learning of fractional numbers by analyzing the notations they make? This paper presents data from interviews carried out with twenty-four children in Kindergarten and first grade (five and six-year-old children), exploring the nuances of their notations and the meanings that they attach to fractions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we focus on Finnish pre-service elementary teachers’ ( N = 269) and upper secondary students’ ( N = 1,434) understanding of division. In the questionnaire, we used the following non-standard division problem: “We know that 498:6 = 83. How could you conclude from this relationship (without using long-division algorithm) what 491:6 = ? is?” This problem especially measures conceptual understanding, adaptive reasoning, and procedural fluency. Based on the results, we can conclude that division seems not to be fully understood: 45% of the pre-service teachers and 37% of upper secondary students were able to produce complete or mainly correct solutions. The reasoning strategies used by these two groups did not differ very much. We identified four main reasons for problems in understanding this task: (1) staying on the integer level, (2) an inability to handle the remainder, (3) difficulties in understanding the relationships between different operations, and (4) insufficient reasoning strategies. It seems that learners’ reasoning strategies in particular play a central role when teachers try to improve learners’ proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores written calculation methods for division used by pupils in England (n = 276) and the Netherlands (n = 259) at two points in the same school year. Informal strategies are analysed and progression identified towards more structured procedures that result from different teaching approaches. Comparison of the methods used by year 5 (Group 6) pupils in the two countries shows greater success in the Dutch approach, which is based on careful progression from informal strategies to more structured and efficient procedures. This success is particularly notable for the girls in the sample. For the English pupils, whose written solutions largely involved the traditional algorithm, the discontinuity between the formal computation procedure and informal solution strategies presents difficulties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subtraction can be understood by two basic models-taking away (ta) and determining the difference (dd)-and by its inverse relation to addition. Epistemological analyses and empirical examples show that the two models are not relevant only in single-digit arithmetic. As curricula should be developed in a longitudinal perspective on mathematics learning processes, the article highlights some exemplary steps in which the inverse relation is discussed in light of the two models, namely mental subtraction, the standard algorithms for subtraction, negative numbers and manipulations for solving algebraic equations. For each step, the article presents educational considerations for fostering a flexible use of the two models as well as of the inverse relation between subtraction and addition. In each section, a mathe-didactical analysis is conducted, empirical results from literature as well as from our own case studies are presented and consequences for teaching are sketched. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated how children tackled a task on division by fractions, and how they formulated numerical algorithms from their strategies. The task assigned to the students was to find the length of a rectangle given its area and width. The investigation was carried out as follows: First, the strategies invented by eight 10- or 11-year-old students, all identified as capable and having positive attitudes towards mathematics, were categorised. Second, the formulation of numerical algorithms from the strategies constructed by nine students with similar abilities and attitudes towards mathematics was investigated. The participants developed three types of strategies (making the width equal to 1, making the area equal to 1, and changing both area and width to natural numbers) and showed the possibility of formulating numerical algorithms for division by fractions referring to their strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we take a rapid journey through the history of algebra, noting the important developments and reflecting on the importance of this history in the teaching of algebra in secondary school or university. Frequently, algebra is considered to have three stages in its historical development: the rhetorical stage, the syncopated stage, and the symbolic stage. But besides these three stages of expressing algebraic ideas, there are four more conceptual stages which have happened along side of these changes in expressions. These stages are the geometric stage, where most of the concepts of algebra are geometric ones; the static equation-solving stage, where the goal is to find numbers satisfying certain relationships; the dynamic function stage, where motion seems to be an underlying idea, and finally, the abstract stage, where mathematical structure plays the central role. The stages of algebra are, of course not entirely disjoint from one another; there is always some overlap. We discuss here high points of the development of these stages and reflect on the use of these historical stages in the teaching of algebra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trainee teachers, new and non-specialist teachers of elementary mathematics have a tendency to avoid thought about reasons in mathematics. Instead, they tend to favour the development of computational skill through the rote application of procedures, routines and algorithms. Could elementary mathematics textbooks serve as models of practice and support the professional development of these teachers? Eighteen such textbooks for use by 7 to 11-year-old children in England were examined for their potential to help teachers attend to reasons. It was found that they were unlikely to point teachers towards reasons for patterns and procedures. Although some had the potential to help in introducing and structuring a lesson, they were unlikely to induce the teacher to address matters of understanding in their discourse. Their implicit message tended to be that mathematics education is about computational skill development through routines, algorithms and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]