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The need to virtually collaborate across distributed locations has drastically increased. Developments such as the COVID-19 pandemic and new IT platforms like the metaverse have spurred a host of new immersive social applications that are accessed through head-mounted displays. This is expected to stimulate a surge in research on extended reality–supported collaborative learning (XRCL) which refers to distributed collaboration situations where immersive technology such as head-mounted displays are used as a medium for collaborative learning. The primary aim of this article is to critically examine the potential pedagogical benefits and limitations of using XRCL with the objective of developing a theoretical framework that describes the fundamental factors that make immersive collaborative learning unique: the theory of immersive collaborative learning (TICOL). In TICOL, we propose that technological features, social affordances, and pedagogical techniques can foster four psychological factors that we define as fundamentally different in XRCL compared to collaboration that occurs through traditional systems (e.g., laptops): social presence, physical presence, body ownership, and agency. These are central factors that we hypothesize can transform the processes and contexts of collaboration through their influence on the quality of cognitive and socio-emotional social interaction, the social space, and ultimately learning outcomes. Since XRCL research is in its infancy, we hope that TICOL can provide a theoretical basis for developing the field by motivating researchers to empirically challenge and build on our hypotheses and ultimately develop a deeper understanding of if and how immersive media influences collaborative learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generative learning activities are assumed to support the construction of coherent mental representations of to-be-learned content, whereas retrieval practice is assumed to support the consolidation of mental representations in memory. Considering such functions that complement each other in learning, research on how generative learning and retrieval practice intersect appears to be very fruitful. Nevertheless, the relationship between these two fields of research is “expandable”—research on generative learning and retrieval practice has been pursued so far largely side by side without taking much note of each other. Against this background, the present article aims to give this relationship a boost. For this purpose, we use the case of follow-up learning tasks provided after learners have processed new material in an initial study phase to illustrate how these two research strands have already inspired each other and how they might do so even more in the future. In doing so, we address open- and closed-book formats of follow-up learning tasks, sequences of follow-up learning tasks that mainly engage learners in generative activities and tasks that mainly engage learners in retrieval practice, and discuss commonalities and differences between indirect effects of retrieval practice and generative learning activities. We further highlight what we do and do not know about how these two activity types interact. Our article closes with a discussion on how the relationship between generative learning and retrieval practice research could bear (more and riper) fruit in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated spaced retrieval and restudying in 3 preregistered, online experiments. In all experiments, participants studied 40 Swahili–English word pair translations during an initial study phase, restudied intact pairs or attempted to retrieve the English words to Swahili cues twice in three spaced practice sessions, and then completed a final cued-recall test. All 5 sessions were separated by 2 days. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the response format during retrieval (covert vs. overt) and the test list structure (blocked vs. intermixed covert/overt retrieval trials). A memory rating was required on all trials (retrieval: “Was your answer correct?”; restudy: “Would you have remembered the correct translation?”). Response format had no effect on recall, but surprisingly, final test performance for restudied items exceeded both the overt and covert retrieval conditions. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the requirement to make a memory rating. If a memory rating was required, final test restudy performance exceeded retrieval performance, replicating Experiment 1. However, the pattern was descriptively reversed if no rating was required. In Experiment 3, the memory rating was removed altogether, and we examined recall performance for items restudied versus retrieved once, twice, or thrice. Performance improved with practice, and retrieval performance exceeded restudy performance in all conditions. The reversal of the typical retrieval practice effect observed in Experiments 1 and 2 is discussed in terms of theories of reactivity of memory judgments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Practice testing is a powerful tool to consolidate long-term retention of studied information, facilitate subsequent learning of new information, and foster knowledge transfer. However, practitioners frequently express the concern that tests are anxiety-inducing and that their employment in the classroom should be minimized. The current review integrates results across 24 studies (i.e., 25 effects based on 3,374 participants) to determine the effect of practice tests (quizzes) on test anxiety (TA) and explore potential moderators of the effect. The results show strong Bayesian evidence (BF10 > 25,000) that practice tests appreciably reduce TA to a medium extent (Hedges’ g = -0.52), with minimal evidence of publication bias. Easy practice tests tend to be more effective in mitigating TA than difficult ones. These findings support a recommendation for instructors to incorporate quizzes into their curriculum. However, instructors should be aware that quizzes themselves may be more stressful than other learning activities. Methods to make quizzes less stressful and more enjoyable are discussed. Research on the effect of practice tests on TA is still in its infancy, and future research directions are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior testing can facilitate subsequent learning, a phenomenon termed the forward testing effect (FTE). We examined a metacognitive account of this effect, which proposes that the FTE occurs because retrieval leads to strategy optimizations during later learning. One prediction of this account is that tests that require less retrieval effort (e.g., multiple-choice relative to cued-recall) should lead to a smaller benefit on new learning. We examined the impact of interpolated multiple-choice or cued-recall testing (relative to no prior testing) on new learning of a four-section STEM text passage. The effect sizes associated with the FTE were numerically, though not significantly larger when the prior tests were cued-recall than multiple-choice, but only when interpolated judgments of learning were not queried. Further, when multiple-choice tests were made more difficult through lure similarity, the FTE was similarly increased. Finally, the FTE was eliminated entirely when participants provided four JOLs after reading each text section. We believe this elimination of the FTE stemmed from an increase in performance for the control participants induced by reactivity from repeated metacognitive queries requiring deep metacognitive reflection. Taken together, these experiments support a metacognitive account of FTE and have important implications for how educators and students should employ retrieval practice and leverage the benefits of metacognitive reflection to improve new learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The benefits of retrieval practice (practice testing) are pervasive across various materials, learning conditions, and criterial tasks, and consequently researchers and educators have enthusiastically recommended retrieval practice for educational applications. Less research has been devoted to examining the effect of combining retrieval practice with other evidence-based learning strategies; this article focuses on an emerging literature that examines the outcomes of combining potent elaborative encoding methods with retrieval practice. Theoretically, several possibilities can be identified. Augmenting retrieval practice with effective encoding strategies could significantly improve learning relative to retrieval practice alone through complementary mechanisms of each or through effective encoding catalyzing retrieval practice effects. Alternatively, effective encoding combined with retrieval practice might not improve learning (relative to retrieval practice alone), because the processing produced by elaborative encoding strategies is overly redundant with those promoted by retrieval practice. The extant literature, which has focused on everyday learning tasks (e.g., name learning) and educationally relevant tasks ranging from learning of arbitrary associations (e.g., new vocabulary meanings) to learning from connected discourse, is reviewed, and helps inform these possibilities. The findings largely converge on the conclusion that incorporating elaborative encoding techniques with retrieval practice prior to, but not concurrent with, retrieval practice provides a boost for learning and retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How do learners make sense of what they are learning? In this article, I present a new framework of sense-making based on research investigating the benefits and boundaries of generative learning activities (GLAs). The generative sense-making framework distinguishes among three primary sense-making modes—explaining, visualizing, and enacting—that each serve unique and complementary cognitive functions. Specifically, the framework assumes learners mentally organize and simulate the learning material (via the visualizing and enacting modes) to facilitate their ability to generalize the learning material (via the explaining mode). I present evidence from research on GLAs illustrating how visualizations and enactments (instructor-provided and/or learner-generated) can facilitate higher quality learner explanations and subsequent learning outcomes. I also discuss several barriers to sense-making that help explain when GLAs are not effective and describe possible ways to overcome these barriers by appropriately guiding and timing GLAs. Finally, I discuss implications of the generative sense-making framework for theory and practice and provide recommendations for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several major theories have been established in research on motivation in education to describe, explain, and predict the direction, initiation, intensity, and persistence of learning behaviors. The most commonly cited theories of academic motivation include expectancy-value theory, social cognitive theory, self-determination theory, interest theory, achievement goal theory, and attribution theory. To gain a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences among these prominent theories, we present an integrative framework based on an action model (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). The basic model is deliberately parsimonious, consisting of six stages of action: the situation, the self, the goal, the action, the outcome, and the consequences. Motivational constructs from each major theory are related to these determinants in the course of action, mainly revealing differences and to a lesser extent commonalities. In the integrative model, learning outcomes represent a typical indicator of goal-directed behavior. Associated recent meta-analyses demonstrate the empirical relationship between the motivational constructs of the six central theories and academic achievement. They provide evidence for the explanatory value of each theory for students’ learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For more than three decades, cognitive load theory has been addressing learning from a cognitive perspective. Based on this instructional theory, design recommendations and principles have been derived to manage the load on working memory while learning. The increasing attention paid to cognitive load theory in educational science quickly culminated in the need to measure its types of cognitive load — intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load which additively contribute to the overall load. In this meta-analysis, four frequently used cognitive load questionnaires were examined concerning their reliability (internal consistency) and validity (construct validity and criterion validity). Results revealed that the internal consistency of the subjective cognitive load questionnaires can be considered satisfactory across all four questionnaires. Moreover, moderator analyses showed that reliability estimates of the cognitive load questionnaires did not differ between educational settings, domains of the instructional materials, presentation modes, or number of scale points. Correlations among the cognitive load types partially contradict theory-based assumptions, whereas correlations with learning-related variables support assumptions derived from cognitive load theory. In particular, results seem to support the three-factor model consisting of intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. Results are discussed in relation to current trends in cognitive load theory and recommendations for the future use of cognitive load questionnaires in experimental research are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a long time, research on individuals learning in digital environments was primarily based on cognitive-oriented theories. This paper aims at providing evidence that social processes affect individual learning with digital materials. Based on these theories and empirical results, a social-processes-augmented theory is suggested: the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments (CASTLE). This CASTLE postulates that social cues in digital materials activate social schemata in learners leading to enhanced (para-)social, motivational, emotional, and metacognitive processes. To substantiate this theory, socio-cognitive theories are used, which predict social influences on learning with digital materials. Besides, previous empirical findings are presented assuming that with a rising number of social cues in digital materials, the influence of social processes increases. Finally, consequences regarding the design of digital learning media are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers of cognitive load theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning have identified several strategies to optimize instructional materials. In this review article we focus on five of these strategies or solutions to problematic instructional designs in multimedia learning: (a) the multimedia principle (use visualizations and drawings to complement texts); (b) the split-attention effect or spatial contiguity principle (show texts contiguously or integrated with visualizations); (c) the redundancy effect, alike the coherence principle (remove nonessential learning information); (d) the signaling principle (cue or signal essential learning information); and (e) the transient information effect or segmenting principle (segment or control the pace of animations and videos). Usually, both cognitive theories have investigated solutions that instructors, teachers, and designers should pursue to optimize students' learning. Here, in a novel approach, we show that these strategies can also be used by learners who want to self-manage their cognitive load and learning process. We provide several examples of both instructor- and learner-managed solutions aligned with these strategies. When assessing which agent, either the instructor or the learner, was most effective, we observed mixed results in the literature. However, the expertise reversal effect may help predict the direction of these effects: novice students may learn better under instructor-managed conditions, whereas more expert students may learn more under learner-managed conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the growing interest in retrieval practice among educators, it is valuable to know when retrieval practice does and does not improve student learning—particularly for educators who have limited classroom time and resources. In this literature review, we developed a narrow operational definition for "classroom research" compared to previous reviews of the literature. We screened nearly 2000 abstracts and systematically coded 50 experiments to establish a clearer picture of benefits from retrieval practice in real world educational settings. Our review yielded 49 effect sizes and a total n = 5374, the majority of which (57%) revealed medium or large benefits from retrieval practice. We found that retrieval practice improved learning for a variety of education levels, content areas, experimental designs, final test delays, retrieval and final test formats, and timing of retrieval practice and feedback; however, only 6% of experiments were conducted in non-WEIRD countries. Based on our review of the literature, we make eight recommendations for future research and provide educators with a better understanding of the robust benefits of retrieval practice across a range of school and classroom settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia pedagogical agents are on-screen characters that allow users to navigate or learn in multimedia environments. Several agents' characteristics may moderate their instructional effectiveness, including appearance, gender, nonverbal communication, motion, and voice. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to test hypotheses from diverse theories predicting the effects of these agents' characteristics. We tested predictions of cognitive load theory, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, computers are social actors, social agency theory, uncanny valley, and the action observation network. Our meta-analysis of 32 effect sizes (N = 2104) revealed a small overall effect (g+ = 0.20), showing that learning with multimedia pedagogical agents was more effective than learning without these agents. As predicted by the redundancy effect of cognitive load theory and the coherence principle of cognitive theory of multimedia learning, 2D agents (g+ = 0.38) tended to be more effective than 3D agents (g+ = 0.11). As predicted by the computers are social actors hypothesis, most of the agents' characteristics, including nonverbal communication, motion, and voice, appeared not to moderate their effectiveness. We conclude that multimedia pedagogical agents help learning through multimedia, and that students may be able to learn similarly from different types of agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over a century of research has established practice testing as a highly robust learning strategy that promotes long-term retention. However, learners do not always appreciate the benefits of testing for memory and do not use it as effectively as they could during their own self-regulated learning. The goal of this review is to identify common themes from research focused on learners' metacognition about practice testing using the three components of metacognition (i.e., beliefs, monitoring, and control) as an organizational guide. To foreshadow the key findings from this research: (1) Without support, learners lack metacognitive awareness of testing as a tool to enhance memory but do recognize that testing can be used as a monitoring tool. (2) Learners can accurately monitor their learning while using practice testing when judgments are made in contexts that are representative of those encountered during a criterion test. (3) In educational contexts, learners report using less effective strategies equally or more often than practice testing. (4) Learners tend to test themselves only under conditions that encourage retrieval success, and rarely use a strategy involving repeated successful retrieval even when it would lead to improved retention. After reviewing research findings, I discuss various interventions that lead to learners using testing more often and more effectively in their own learning and offer recommendations for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice has been widely studied as an effective strategy for enhancing memory. In this review article, we discuss how its effects on learning complex problem-solving procedures are less straightforward, however, with repeated studying of worked examples sometimes more effective than problem-solving practice. This worked example benefit has been interpreted within the framework of cognitive load theory. In both memory-based tasks and problem-solving tasks, students rate retrieval as more effortful, and less effective for learning, than repeated study. Self-regulated learning decisions do not align with the evidence about the effectiveness of retrieval, as students often avoid using retrieval in memory-based tasks but frequently use it in more complex problem-solving tasks. Patterns associated with self-report survey data and self-regulated learning decisions suggest that retrieval may be used primarily as a means of checking knowledge, and the effort experienced during retrieval may drive subsequent study decisions (i.e., the choice to engage in retrieval vs. further study) to the extent that the experienced effort is interpreted as a sign that learning has been ineffective. We discuss implications of students' views about the purpose of retrieval for effective monitoring and regulation of effort during learning, and propose interventions that may improve students' optimal use of retrieval in their study decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have shown that learners exposed to interesting and irrelevant information, known as seductive details, do not perform as much as those who learned without seductive details. However, findings are mixed in terms of the degree to which seductive details hinder learning. Further research is also needed on how design features of learning materials influence the seductive details effect. This meta-analysis summarizes the seductive details effect and investigates the moderating factors of design and methodology. We also discuss evidence supporting each of the four hypothetical underlying mechanisms for the seductive details effect. Findings show that including seductive details in learning material can hinder learning. Mean effect sizes were moderated by the presence of seductive details, image type used in comparison, delivery format, language, subject, learner pacing, recall question type, and manipulation check approach. We conclude by highlighting limitations in current research, suggesting opportunities for future research, and examining practical implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measure the effect of a single test practice on 15-year-old students' ability to solve mathematics problems using large, representative samples of the schooled population in 32 countries. We exploit three unique features of the 2012 administration of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a large-scale, low-stakes international assessment. During the 2012 PISA administration, participating students were asked to sit two separate tests consisting of problem-solving tasks. Both tests included questions that covered the same internationally recognized and validated framework for mathematics assessment. Students were randomly assigned in the first, 2-h-long test to one of three test versions containing varying amounts of mathematics, reading, and science problems. We found that the amount of mathematics problems in the first test had a small positive effect on mean mathematics performance on the second test, but no effect on general reasoning and problem-solving ability. Subject-specific effects of test practice on subsequent test performance were found over both short lags (same day) and medium lags (1–7 days). The learning gains ascribed to mathematics problem-solving practice were larger for boys than for girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieving information from memory increases the likelihood the information will be remembered later. The strategic use of retrieval to enhance memory is known as retrieval practice. Teachers can exert considerable control over students' retrieval practice, dictating when and how much students practice. Laboratory research has shown that retention benefits from increasing the amount of practice (i.e., the number of times information is retrieved) and from spacing practice out over time. Although retrieval practice is a prominent part of the learning experience in certain educational domains, such as mathematics, relatively little research has examined how retention of actual classroom content is affected by increasing the amount and spacing of retrieval practice. Here, we implemented a complete within-subjects crossing of practice amount (baseline versus increased) and practice spacing (baseline versus increased) in a precalculus course for engineering students. Practice consisted of answering quiz questions. We assessed retention of precalculus knowledge at two educationally relevant time points: the end of the precalculus course (within-semester) and the beginning of a calculus course 4 weeks later (across-semester). Within-semester retention benefited significantly from practicing more and from spacing out practice, although some evidence suggested that the effect of amount of practice was less robust than the effect of spacing. Across-semester retention benefited exclusively from increasing spacing. Given that retaining precalculus knowledge across semesters is crucial for success in higher-level mathematics, these findings support increasing spacing in real-world mathematics education. We discuss how our findings fit within the larger literature on the memory-enhancing effects of retrieval practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies comparing the instructional effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations have produced mixed results. In this work, we investigated whether gender imbalance in the participant samples of these studies may have contributed to the mixed results. We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized experiments in which groups of students learning through dynamic visualizations were compared to groups receiving static visualizations. Our sample focused on tasks that could be categorized as either biologically secondary tasks (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: STEM) or biologically primary tasks (manipulative–procedural). The meta-analysis of 46 studies (82 effect sizes and 5474 participants) revealed an overall small-sized effect (g+ = 0.23) showing that dynamic visualizations were more effective than static visualizations. Regarding potential moderators, we observed that gender was influential: the dynamic visualizations were more effective on samples with less females and more males (g+ = 0.36). We also observed that educational level, learning domain, media compared, and reporting reliability measures moderated the results. We concluded that because many visualization studies have used samples with a gender imbalance, this may be a significant factor in explaining why instructional dynamic and static visualizations seem to vary in their effectiveness. Our findings also support considering the gender variable in research about cognitive load theory and instructional visualizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]