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Working memory (WM) is a crucial cognitive function, and a deficit in this function is a critical factor in learning difficulties (LDs). As a result, there is growing interest in exploring different approaches to training WM to support students with LDs. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this systematic review aims to identify current computer-based WM training applications and their theoretical foundations, explore their effects on improving WM capacity and other cognitive/academic abilities, and extract design principles for creating an effective WM application for children with LDs. The 22 studies selected for this review provide strong evidence that children with LDs have low WM capacity and that their WM functions can be trained. The findings revealed four commercial WM training applications—COGMED, Jungle, BrainWare Safari, and N-back—that were utilized in 16 studies. However, these studies focused on suggesting different types of WM tasks and examining their effects rather than making those tasks user-friendly or providing practical guidelines for the end-user. To address this gap, the principles of the Human–Computer Interaction, with a focus on usability and user experience as well as relevant cognitive theories, and the design recommendations from the selected studies have been reviewed to extract a set of proposed guidelines. A total of 15 guidelines have been extracted that can be utilized to design WM training programs specifically for children with LDs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive load theory focuses on the limited capacity of working memory (WM) to encapsulate information. While the original theory postulated a fixed capacity of working memory, research in the last decade has provided evidence for the depletion hypothesis. This hypothesis holds that WM becomes depleted after effortful cognitive operations that reduce its capacity, providing a framework for the restorative effects of rest periods. Rest periods during which natural scenery is observed have been found to replenish working memory after it has been subjected to depletion. In the present study, participants observed pictures depicting either a natural or an urban environment, after completing a cognitively depleting task. For this study, we obtained EEG measures of working memory by analyzing alpha and theta wave amplitudes. The motivation behind this choice was to derive a continuous index of WM capacity and address the lack of electrophysiological data regarding the depletion hypothesis. Previous research identified a decrease in alpha amplitude, and a simultaneous increase in theta activity with increasing WM load. Our findings partially replicated these results, as we observed a decrease in alpha amplitude with increasing cognitive load but no significant difference in theta power. Moreover, average signal amplitudes did not differ between the natural and the urban conditions, contrary to our hypothesis. These results suggest an absence of the expected environmental effect, opposing the outcome of existing research on the topic. The absence of this effect could also be attributed to similarities between the two conditions in certain factors thought to elicit differential physiological responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within chemistry education, methods for effectively teaching students the three-dimensional spatial arrangements of matter at the molecular level remains a topical issue. As a form of geometric problem solving, it requires learners to apply mental rotation abilities as an evolved visuospatial skill to obtain subject-specific content knowledge. Recent research into the use of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) as a framework for instructional design in conjunction with augmented reality (AR) technology as a learning tool has begun to show promise in reducing unnecessary cognitive activity to improve learning. Yet, broader conclusions remain inconclusive, especially within the context of a learner's mental rotation abilities. This study investigated the relationship between these factors by collecting data using a 2 × 3 experimental design that divided a sample of Year 10 students (n = 42) into two groups. The intervention group (n = 24) used mobile devices utilising AR technology with instructional 3D molecular geometry content featuring design principles based on CLT to encourage hand movements to rotate three-dimensional molecular structures. The non-AR-based control group (n = 18) was taught using traditional methods. Analysis of the data revealed participants using AR technology that featured CLT design principles experienced less cognitive load and improved achievement in post-testing compared to those taught using traditional methods, suggesting under certain conditions, the use of hand movement applied to AR design material improves learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In two experiments, we compared the effects of practice (real and imitative) with no practice on the observational learning of hand motor skills from animated videos. Experiment 1 investigated learning to play a series of piano clips of varying complexity. Results demonstrated improved learning efficiency with imitative practice compared to no practice. Experiment 2 featured a paper-folding task, and results indicated that real practice led to significantly greater learning than no practice. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found with gender and practice, where females learned best with both real and imitative practice, but males did not benefit from these interventions. However, males outperformed females in the no practice condition. Overall, we found benefits of practice versus no practice for both tasks. However, the most effective type of practice was dependent upon the task: imitative practice for piano playing, and real practice for paper folding. Task complexity and gender were also found to be moderating factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive load theory (CLT) has driven numerous empirical studies for over 30 years and is a major theme in many of the most cited articles published between 1988 and 2023. However, CLT articles have not been compared to other educational psychology research in terms of the research designs used and the extent to which recommendations for practice are justified. As Brady and colleagues found, a large percentage of the educational psychology articles reviewed were not experimental and yet frequently made specific recommendations from observational/correlational data. Therefore, in this review, CLT articles were examined with regard to the types of research methodology employed and whether recommendations for practice were justified. Across several educational psychology journals in 2020 and 2023, 16 articles were determined to directly test CLT. In contrast to other articles, which employed mostly observational methods, all but two of the CLT articles employed experimental or intervention designs. For the two CLT articles that were observational, recommendations for practice were not made. Reasons for the importance of experimental work are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within this integrative review, cognitive load theory (CLT) is asserted as a powerful framework for conceptualizing human cognitive processes within learning. The relationship between cognition and emotion is then examined and further integrated within the scope of CLT. Emotion regulation strategies are discussed and adaptive strategies are proposed as being of particular relevance to broadening the theoretical and practical impacts of CLT. Central to the argument of this review is the use of cognitive reappraisal as a potential mitigator of cognitive load. Cognitive reappraisal involves reframing or reassessing understandings or beliefs that underlie an emotional response, which may mitigate cognitive load imposed by maladaptive emotion. It is proposed that effectively integrating adaptive emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal in our pursuit of more effective cognitive functioning will aid in the development of a more integrated model of cognition and emotion within CLT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learner control allows for greater autonomy and is supposed to benefit learning motivation, but it might be more advantageous for students with specific learner characteristics. The current study looks into the relationships between self-regulated learning, cognitive load, and performance within learner-controlled environments. The research was conducted in an asynchronous online setting, allowing for learner control. Cognitive load and self-regulated learning were measured using self-report questionnaires. Performance was assessed through case solutions. The participants were 97 graduate law students studying the civil code. Analysis based on structural equation modeling showed that both prior knowledge and self-regulated learning skills significantly contribute to the increase in germane cognitive load and are positively correlated with performance. The implications of these findings underscore the critical role of prior knowledge and self-regulated learning skills in shaping the cognitive processes involved in learning, ultimately impacting academic achievement. These results emphasize the need for careful consideration of learner-control options in asynchronous online environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to explore the impact of a mastery approach goal orientation (MAGO) on learning from worked examples. In this experiment (N = 98, mean age = 13.9 years), learners had their MAGO measured, and received instruction in mathematics, either through a worked-example or a problem-solving strategy. The study demonstrated that the worked-examples approach resulted in enhanced retention (but not transfer) and decreased cognitive load when compared to the problem-solving approach. However, there was a significant interaction between instructional strategy and the MAGO, indicating that only learners with a high MAGO benefited from worked examples. Learners with higher MAGO levels also experienced less cognitive load than learners with a lower MAGO. These results indicate a moderating role of MGO in enhancing the effectiveness of worked examples. This study also found that prior knowledge was the only factor influencing transfer performance, highlighting the importance of studying its impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive load theory focuses on the limited capacity of working memory (WM) to encapsulate information. While the original theory postulated a fixed capacity of working memory, research in the last decade has provided evidence for the depletion hypothesis. This hypothesis holds that WM becomes depleted after effortful cognitive operations that reduce its capacity, providing a framework for the restorative effects of rest periods. Rest periods during which natural scenery is observed have been found to replenish working memory after it has been subjected to depletion. In the present study, participants observed pictures depicting either a natural or an urban environment, after completing a cognitively depleting task. For this study, we obtained EEG measures of working memory by analyzing alpha and theta wave amplitudes. The motivation behind this choice was to derive a continuous index of WM capacity and address the lack of electrophysiological data regarding the depletion hypothesis. Previous research identified a decrease in alpha amplitude, and a simultaneous increase in theta activity with increasing WM load. Our findings partially replicated these results, as we observed a decrease in alpha amplitude with increasing cognitive load but no significant difference in theta power. Moreover, average signal amplitudes did not differ between the natural and the urban conditions, contrary to our hypothesis. These results suggest an absence of the expected environmental effect, opposing the outcome of existing research on the topic. The absence of this effect could also be attributed to similarities between the two conditions in certain factors thought to elicit differential physiological responses.

Working memory (WM) is a crucial cognitive function, and a deficit in this function is a critical factor in learning difficulties (LDs). As a result, there is growing interest in exploring different approaches to training WM to support students with LDs. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this systematic review aims to identify current computer-based WM training applications and their theoretical foundations, explore their effects on improving WM capacity and other cognitive/academic abilities, and extract design principles for creating an effective WM application for children with LDs. The 22 studies selected for this review provide strong evidence that children with LDs have low WM capacity and that their WM functions can be trained. The findings revealed four commercial WM training applications—COGMED, Jungle, BrainWare Safari, and N-back—that were utilized in 16 studies. However, these studies focused on suggesting different types of WM tasks and examining their effects rather than making those tasks user-friendly or providing practical guidelines for the end-user. To address this gap, the principles of the Human–Computer Interaction, with a focus on usability and user experience as well as relevant cognitive theories, and the design recommendations from the selected studies have been reviewed to extract a set of proposed guidelines. A total of 15 guidelines have been extracted that can be utilized to design WM training programs specifically for children with LDs.

The self-management principle holds that higher learning performance is obtained when learners actively use instructional strategies to manage the working memory load imposed by a learning task. Self-management studies with spatially separated but mutually referring text and pictures (split-attention examples) demonstrate the learning benefits of physical (e.g., annotation) and mental (imagined drag-and-drop) strategies. We investigated whether combining physical and mental strategies supports learning beyond a single strategy. Eighty-four participants studied a split-attention example with or without using a physical strategy and/or a mental strategy. Participants completed retention, comprehension, and transfer tests, and rated their cognitive load. Results showed that the combined use of physical and mental strategies resulted in lower cognitive load during learning than using the physical strategy and was more instructionally efficient compared to all other conditions. There were no significant differences regarding learning outcomes. Together, this suggests that combining physical and mental strategies is most supportive for studying split-attention examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within chemistry education, methods for effectively teaching students the three-dimensional spatial arrangements of matter at the molecular level remains a topical issue. As a form of geometric problem solving, it requires learners to apply mental rotation abilities as an evolved visuospatial skill to obtain subject-specific content knowledge. Recent research into the use of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) as a framework for instructional design in conjunction with augmented reality (AR) technology as a learning tool has begun to show promise in reducing unnecessary cognitive activity to improve learning. Yet, broader conclusions remain inconclusive, especially within the context of a learner’s mental rotation abilities. This study investigated the relationship between these factors by collecting data using a 2 × 3 experimental design that divided a sample of Year 10 students (n = 42) into two groups. The intervention group (n = 24) used mobile devices utilising AR technology with instructional 3D molecular geometry content featuring design principles based on CLT to encourage hand movements to rotate three-dimensional molecular structures. The non-AR-based control group (n = 18) was taught using traditional methods. Analysis of the data revealed participants using AR technology that featured CLT design principles experienced less cognitive load and improved achievement in post-testing compared to those taught using traditional methods, suggesting under certain conditions, the use of hand movement applied to AR design material improves learning.

Learner control allows for greater autonomy and is supposed to benefit learning motivation, but it might be more advantageous for students with specific learner characteristics. The current study looks into the relationships between self-regulated learning, cognitive load, and performance within learner-controlled environments. The research was conducted in an asynchronous online setting, allowing for learner control. Cognitive load and self-regulated learning were measured using self-report questionnaires. Performance was assessed through case solutions. The participants were 97 graduate law students studying the civil code. Analysis based on structural equation modeling showed that both prior knowledge and self-regulated learning skills significantly contribute to the increase in germane cognitive load and are positively correlated with performance. The implications of these findings underscore the critical role of prior knowledge and self-regulated learning skills in shaping the cognitive processes involved in learning, ultimately impacting academic achievement. These results emphasize the need for careful consideration of learner-control options in asynchronous online environments.

Within this integrative review, cognitive load theory (CLT) is asserted as a powerful framework for conceptualizing human cognitive processes within learning. The relationship between cognition and emotion is then examined and further integrated within the scope of CLT. Emotion regulation strategies are discussed and adaptive strategies are proposed as being of particular relevance to broadening the theoretical and practical impacts of CLT. Central to the argument of this review is the use of cognitive reappraisal as a potential mitigator of cognitive load. Cognitive reappraisal involves reframing or reassessing understandings or beliefs that underlie an emotional response, which may mitigate cognitive load imposed by maladaptive emotion. It is proposed that effectively integrating adaptive emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal in our pursuit of more effective cognitive functioning will aid in the development of a more integrated model of cognition and emotion within CLT.

Cognitive load theory (CLT) has driven numerous empirical studies for over 30 years and is a major theme in many of the most cited articles published between 1988 and 2023. However, CLT articles have not been compared to other educational psychology research in terms of the research designs used and the extent to which recommendations for practice are justified. As Brady and colleagues found, a large percentage of the educational psychology articles reviewed were not experimental and yet frequently made specific recommendations from observational/correlational data. Therefore, in this review, CLT articles were examined with regard to the types of research methodology employed and whether recommendations for practice were justified. Across several educational psychology journals in 2020 and 2023, 16 articles were determined to directly test CLT. In contrast to other articles, which employed mostly observational methods, all but two of the CLT articles employed experimental or intervention designs. For the two CLT articles that were observational, recommendations for practice were not made. Reasons for the importance of experimental work are discussed.

In two experiments, we compared the effects of practice (real and imitative) with no practice on the observational learning of hand motor skills from animated videos. Experiment 1 investigated learning to play a series of piano clips of varying complexity. Results demonstrated improved learning efficiency with imitative practice compared to no practice. Experiment 2 featured a paper-folding task, and results indicated that real practice led to significantly greater learning than no practice. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found with gender and practice, where females learned best with both real and imitative practice, but males did not benefit from these interventions. However, males outperformed females in the no practice condition. Overall, we found benefits of practice versus no practice for both tasks. However, the most effective type of practice was dependent upon the task: imitative practice for piano playing, and real practice for paper folding. Task complexity and gender were also found to be moderating factors.

The interleaving effect indicates that students learn better from multiple areas that are interleaved rather than blocked. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that the effect is because interleaving facilitates comparisons between areas and is a variation of the variability effect that increases intrinsic cognitive load. Experiment 1 used an interleaved design with two obviously different topics and found no interleaving effect. Experiment 2 used a similar design but used topics that were more difficult to discriminate between, resulting in a clear advantage for the interleaved group associated with an increase in cognitive load. These results support the hypothesis that the interleaving and variability effects are closely related. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to explore the impact of a mastery approach goal orientation (MAGO) on learning from worked examples. In this experiment (N = 98, mean age = 13.9 years), learners had their MAGO measured, and received instruction in mathematics, either through a worked-example or a problem-solving strategy. The study demonstrated that the worked-examples approach resulted in enhanced retention (but not transfer) and decreased cognitive load when compared to the problem-solving approach. However, there was a significant interaction between instructional strategy and the MAGO, indicating that only learners with a high MAGO benefited from worked examples. Learners with higher MAGO levels also experienced less cognitive load than learners with a lower MAGO. These results indicate a moderating role of MGO in enhancing the effectiveness of worked examples. This study also found that prior knowledge was the only factor influencing transfer performance, highlighting the importance of studying its impact.

The self-management principle holds that higher learning performance is obtained when learners actively use instructional strategies to manage the working memory load imposed by a learning task. Self-management studies with spatially separated but mutually referring text and pictures (split-attention examples) demonstrate the learning benefits of physical (e.g., annotation) and mental (imagined drag-and-drop) strategies. We investigated whether combining physical and mental strategies supports learning beyond a single strategy. Eighty-four participants studied a split-attention example with or without using a physical strategy and/or a mental strategy. Participants completed retention, comprehension, and transfer tests, and rated their cognitive load. Results showed that the combined use of physical and mental strategies resulted in lower cognitive load during learning than using the physical strategy and was more instructionally efficient compared to all other conditions. There were no significant differences regarding learning outcomes. Together, this suggests that combining physical and mental strategies is most supportive for studying split-attention examples.

The interleaving effect indicates that students learn better from multiple areas that are interleaved rather than blocked. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that the effect is because interleaving facilitates comparisons between areas and is a variation of the variability effect that increases intrinsic cognitive load. Experiment 1 used an interleaved design with two obviously different topics and found no interleaving effect. Experiment 2 used a similar design but used topics that were more difficult to discriminate between, resulting in a clear advantage for the interleaved group associated with an increase in cognitive load. These results support the hypothesis that the interleaving and variability effects are closely related.