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Identifying the main drivers of the household carbon footprint (HCF) is a priority to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and move towards a more sustainable economy. Among the multiple factors that explain the HCF, some previous research has confirmed the relevance of gender. In this paper, we calculate the HCF of individual Spanish households using an environmentally extended multi-regional input-output model (EEMRIO) that quantifies the emissions embedded in the supply chain of goods and services that households consume. We assess the differences in consumption and emissions patterns, measuring the gender effect by a new variable, the female share of the household. This represents a remarkable improvement over previous literature that used simpler approaches. Moreover, we assess the partial effect of gender on HCF using multivariate regressions for total and sectoral emissions. Our results show that households with a majority of men have a higher HCF and carbon intensity. Even when controlling for economic, sociodemographic, and regional factors there are differences in the sectoral emissions according to gender. Female households spend more (and generate more emissions) on housing and food products, while male households show that pattern for restaurants and transport. These results can help orientate environmental campaigns and demand-side mitigation policies. • We calculate HCF for individual Spanish households using HBS data and EEMRIO. • We introduce the gender effect through the new indicator "female share in households." • Households with a majority of men have a higher HCF and carbon intensity. • The higher the proportion of women in a household, the higher the HCF in housing and food. • The higher the proportion of women in a household, the lower the carbon footprint in restaurants and transportation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective implementation of resource policies requires consistent and robust indicators. An increasing number of national and international strategies focussing on resource efficiency as a means for reaching a “green economy” call for such indicators. As supply chains of goods and services are increasingly organised on the global level, comprehensive indicators taking into account upstream material flows associated with internationally traded products need to be compiled. Particularly in the last few years, the development of consumption-based indicators of material use – also termed “material footprints” – has made considerable progress. This paper presents a comprehensive review of existing methodologies to calculate material footprint-type indicators. The three prevailing approaches, i.e. environmentally extended input–output analysis (EE-IOA), coefficient approaches based on process analysis data, and hybrid approaches combing elements of EE-IOA and process analysis are presented, existing models using the different approaches discussed, and advantages and disadvantages of each approach identified. We argue that there is still a strong need for improvement of the specific approaches as well as comparability of results, in order to reduce uncertainties. The paper concludes with recommendations for further development covering methodological, data and institutional aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper quantifies changes in the trend of greenhouse gas footprints associated with household consumption covering a period of 20 years. We combine greenhouse gas emissions related to the supply chain (embedded) and consumption (direct) with households' consumption expenditures from the sample survey of income and expenditure (EVS), and present the first comprehensive study on trends in greenhouse gas footprints of German households. We find a decay in changes in GHG footprints as a response to increases in household expenditure over time. In addition, our estimated own-price elasticities for electricity and heating indicate an increasing demand response to higher energy prices. However, this does not translate to a clear decreasing trend in the total GHG footprint because of the role of changes in the demand of other commodities and changes in expenditure levels across years. Further, comparing results of the more advanced EASI demand system with those of the more widely used QUAIDS approach, we find sizable differences. • Mean GHG footprints of German households have fallen by 21% from 1998 to 2018. • Heating, transport and food contribute most to the mean GHG footprint in all years. • The expenditure elasticity of GHG footprints is quite stable at 0.92 (+/− 0.01). • Own-price elasticities for electricity and heating show increasing demand responses. • QUAIDS is too restrictive compared to the more flexible EASI demand system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the characteristics of embodied CO 2 emissions from the perspective of carbon inflows, carbon outflows, and the net effects, at both an aggregate and bilateral scale. We identify several important relationships in bilateral carbon flows, including China–EU, China–USA, Russia–EU, and China–Japan, which make China and Russia the largest carbon exporters and the EU and the USA the largest carbon importers. A further investigation of the sectors contributing to carbon flows shows that exports from the mineral, chemicals, metals, oil, transport, and other manufacturing sectors are the main cause of carbon outflows, while the intermediate inputs of the electricity and transport sectors are the primary cause of carbon outflows due to export production. Moreover, we propose an intensity-based shared responsibility strategy and find that China should take the most responsibility because it is responsible for nearly 32% of all embodied emissions, due to its less efficient and high carbon-intensive technologies. The USA and the EU follow China, with shares of 13.2% and 11.3%, respectively, owing to their heavy consumption. As a result, China and the USA contribute 31.8% and 20.6%, respectively, of the total global emissions, outweighing the aggregated contribution from all other countries/regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the face of increasing demand and limited emission reduction opportunities, the steel industry will have to look beyond its process emissions to bear its share of emission reduction targets. One option is to improve material efficiency — reducing the amount of metal required to meet services. In this context, the purpose of this paper is to explore why opportunities to improve material efficiency through upstream measures such as yield improvement and lightweighting might remain underexploited by industry. Established input–output techniques are applied to the GTAP 7 multi-regional input–output model to quantify the incentives for companies in key steel-using sectors (such as property developers and automotive companies) to seek opportunities to improve material efficiency in their upstream supply chains under different short-run carbon price scenarios. Because of the underlying assumptions, the incentives are interpreted as overestimates. The principal result of the paper is that these generous estimates of the incentives for material efficiency caused by a carbon price are offset by the disincentives to material efficiency caused by labour taxes. Reliance on a carbon price alone to deliver material efficiency would therefore be misguided and additional policy interventions to support material efficiency should be considered. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The new European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) was purposely established to “contribute to the promotion of sustainable rural development throughout the EU community”. This paper addresses the sustainability of the EAFRD from a triple bottom line perspective in a multiregional input-output model. This framework allows us to study both the trade relations within the EU target regions and also the relations of the EU with some other regions in the world. Additionally, the model allows us to determine the losses (leakages) or gains (boosts and feedbacks) of a wide range of effects. On the other hand, this framework allows a simultaneous consideration of socioeconomic and environmental fund effects to identify their causes and flows and to clarify and reallocate benefits and responsibilities across levels and regions. The estimation of direct and indirect impact effects in an EU country clarifies the following: a) how the leakages to other regions generate a final economic impact that redistributes the prior fund distribution; b) how relevant the countries' participation in global production chains are; and c) how the potential existence of an ecological unequal exchange is assessed. The main data originate from the WIOD database and the European Network for Rural Development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In recent years there have been a number of attempts to develop a more comprehensive approach to the issue of measuring resource use and/or pollution generation embodied in trade flows, including contributions that combine input–output techniques and Ecological Footprint analysis. In this two-part paper we describe how to enumerate the resource and/or pollution content of inter-regional and inter-national trade flows (Part 1) and we present a literature review of recent methodological and empirical developments (Part 2). It is straightforward in principle to extend the basic input–output approach to capture international trade flows. However, in practice, problems of data availability and compatibility, and of computability of extended input–output matrices, mean that simplifying assumptions are generally applied, but with the implications of these assumptions often not made fully explicit. What appears to be absent from previous applications is an account of the analytical method by which Ecological Footprints should ideally be estimated in an international input–output accounting analysis. This allows an explicit analysis of the problems that prevent the application of the full method and identification of the most appropriate short-cut methods in a transparent way. The objective of this paper is to provide such an account. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In a recent paper in this journal, embodied land appropriation in international trade activities was analysed using a physical input–output table (PIOT) (Ecological Economics 44 (2003) 137). The authors stated that there are significant differences between the physical and the monetary input–output tables in their results, which the authors argued to be due to the fact that the results from the monetary table are determined mainly by the monetary structure of final demand, while the structure of a physical table more closely resembles the ‘physical realities’ of an economy. In the present paper, it is argued that the methodological foundation that the authors based their analysis on is misleading and does not satisfy the overall material balance requirement. It is shown that the differences in the results between the monetary and physical tables presented by the authors have nothing to do with the resemblance to the physical realities. I also tried to further clarify a number of critical issues in applying physical input–output tables, related to double counting, treatment of wastes and the effect of closing the system toward direct material inputs. A number of consistent but different approaches to cope with these issues are presented, including their proofs. The embodied land appropriation of international trade activities is calculated and compared by applying those approaches. There are many advantages of using physical input–output tables, however, their superiority should not be exaggerated nor be regarded as absolute. Depending on how it is constructed and used, it is also possible that the results from a physical input–output table do not tell us more than that indeed some commodities are cheaper, or more costly, per unit of their mass. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper takes both value-added trade and trade-implied CO 2 emission reduction responsibility into account, which constructs a unified conceptual framework to recalculate CO 2 emission reduction responsibility from the perspective of value-added trade. This allows policymakers to trace worldwide CO 2 emissions at multiple levels of trade, production, consumption, and shared principle alongside the world trade network. This paper employs the gross export decomposition methodology and the World Input-Output Database for calculations. Firstly, compared with traditional trade statistics, measuring embedded emissions in value-added trade can deduct the double-counted terms of CO 2 emissions due to intermediate products crossing several borders repeatedly. Secondly, the worldwide inter-country CO 2 emission footprints embedded in exports, imports, and net flows of value-added trade are traced in a geographical world map. It occurs that, China, the USA, Russia, and the EU are the top four largest emitters. Thirdly, network analysis is further utilized to capture bilateral implicit CO 2 emission relationships, e.g., the EU members' environmental impacts depend on intra-regional trade within the union. Finally, a comparison is made under three burden-sharing principles based on value-added trade. The shared responsibility offers a compromise between the producer's and the consumer's principle, which is considered to be fairer and more effective. • This paper calculates trade-implied CO 2 emission reduction responsibility from the perspective of value-added trade. • A gross export decomposition model is applied to deduct double-counted terms of implicit carbon embedded in traditional trade. • The worldwide inter-country CO 2 emission footprints are visualized. • Network analysis is conducted to identify the major carbon emitters and their complex relations. • Three burden-sharing criteria are computed through the statistics of value-added trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses input–output analysis to model the environmental impacts of the weekly food consumption of Australia's households sorted by income quintile in 2003. We found that weekly food consumption of the relatively better off households caused greater environmental burden than that of the less well-off household. Meat and bakery products/flour/cereals were the categories that contributed the largest share of environmental impacts in an average household's food consumption footprint: 58% water, 26% energy, 29% CO 2 , and 31% wasted materials. Per dollar spent, fruit and vegetables generated 0.0874 m 3 of water, 0.0055 GJ of energy, 0.37 kg of CO 2 , and 0.0114 kg of wasted materials. This was lower than the per dollar impacts of bakery products (0.8482, 0.0067, 0.63, 0.0204), meat (0.3471, 0.0070, 0.65, 0.0203), dairy (0.0995, 0.0114, 0.98, 0.0192), and edible fats (0.2373, 0.0080, 0.70, 0.0165). Eating out and fast food consumption also had a low per dollar impact (0.1317, 0.0046, 0.38, 0.0141). We surmise that substituting fruit and vegetables at the expense of animal products, processed foods, and fats would decrease environmental impacts. Change at low income levels should be focused upon meat, bakery and dairy consumption, while higher incomes should be focused upon the consequences of eating food outside the home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the carbon dioxide emissions of the service sector subsystem of Uruguay in 2004. Services, with the exception of transport, are often considered intangible because of their low level of direct emissions. However, the provision of services requires inputs produced by other sectors, including several highly material-intensive sectors. Through input–output analysis we investigate the relationship between the service subsystem and the rest of the economy as regards carbon dioxide emissions. This approach allows us to study the importance of the set of services branches as a unit in the economic structure as well as to analyze in detail the relationship between the branches. The results depict that services' direct emissions are the main component, as a consequence of transport related sectors. However, the pollution that the service subsystem makes the rest of the economy produce is very significant, and it is almost all explained by non-transport related sectors. This analysis is useful for determining the sectors in which mitigation policies are more effective, and whether they would be better tackled through technical improvements and better practices or through demand policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complexity of the connections within an economic system can only be reliably reflected in academic research if powerful methods are used. Researchers have used structural path analysis (SPA) to capture not only the linkages within the production system but also the propagation of the effects into different channels of impacts. However, the SPA literature has restricted itself to showing the relations among sectors of production, while the connections between these sectors and final consumption have attracted little attention. In order to consider the complete set of channels involved, in this paper we propose a structural path method that endogenously incorporates not only sectors of production but also the final consumption of the economy. The empirical application comprises water usages, and analyses the dissemination of exogenous impacts into various channels of water consumption. The results show that the responsibility for water stress is imputed to different sectors and depends on the hypothesis used for the role played by final consumption in the model. This highlights the importance of consumers' decisions in the determination of ecological impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global biogeochemical cycles are recognised as extremely important processes operating within the Earth's (geo)biosphere. However, there are currently few methods available through which we can understand and communicate humanity's dependence on these cycles. This paper presents a novel method, based on input–output analysis, for deriving a suite of indicators describing the level at which the global economy, through its transformation of useful resources (i.e. raw materials) into residuals (i.e. wastes, pollutants, emissions), is appropriating biogeochemical processes. Furthermore, significant insight into the scale of the global economic system is gained by comparing the rate of human appropriation of biogeochemical cycling with that of the biosphere's regenerative capacity. In order to calculate these indicators, we create a new concept of ‘ecotime’, defined as the average biogeochemical cycling time available for matter held within differing types of environmental commodities (e.g. carbon dioxide, plants, fossil fuels) to reach biogeochemical processes under consideration. Resources used by the global economy generally have long ecotimes, while the residuals produced by economic activities generally have short ecotimes. Applying our method to an extensive database encompassing the key biogeochemical cycles, it is found that humans are placing significant pressure on these cycles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Increasing pressures on water resources in the two economically important states of California (CA) and Illinois (IL) have created a need for critical information related to sustainable water use and management. This paper applies input–output (IO) analysis to evaluate water use and quantify virtual water transfers involving the two states. Results show that aquaculture requires the largest input of direct water per unit of economic output, followed by crops, power generation, livestock, mining, services, domestic, and industry. Low water use intensity industry and services sectors contributed the largest proportions of value added and employee compensation. In 2008, the two states were net virtual exporters, with CA exporting 1.3 times the net export volume of IL. More than 72% of virtual water exports for each state originated from the high total water use intensity but low value added crops sector, with irrigation and rainfall contributing 99% and 97% of the crop-related exports for CA and IL, respectively. Virtual water export volumes were 59% for CA and 71% for IL when compared to actual water use. These results highlight the need to consider water use efficiency and opportunity cost when managing water under scarcity conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In recent years, energy-related CO2 emissions embodied in international trade and the driving forces have been widely studied by researchers using the environmental input–output framework. Most previous studies however, do not differentiate different input structures in manufacturing processing exports and normal exports. Using China as an example, this paper exemplifies how implications of results obtained using different export assumptions differ. The study posits that the utilization of traditional I–O model results in an overestimation of emissions embodied in processing exports and an underestimation in normal exports. The estimate of CO2 emissions embodied in China''s exports drops by 32% when the extended I–O model is used. The choice of export assumption has more impact on the decomposition results for processing exports. The study further highlights that for a country with an export structure similar to China, it is meaningful to look into the impact of export assumption in embodied emission studies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This is the first part of a two-part paper providing an analytical model of the indirect rebound effect, given a direct rebound estimate, that integrates consumer demand theory with the embodied energy of household spending from environmentally-extended input–output analysis. The second part applies the model developed in part one to simulate the direct and indirect rebound for the average U.S. household in terms of primary energy, CO2e, NOx, and SO2 emissions and for energy efficiency investments in electricity, natural gas, or gasoline services. Part one provides a critical review of the largely independent economic and industrial ecology literatures on the indirect rebound. By studying the two-goods case and the n-goods case, we demonstrate that the indirect rebound is bounded by the consumer budget constraint, and inversely related to the direct rebound. We also compare the common proportional spending and income elasticity spending assumptions with our model of cross-price elasticities including both substitution and income effects for the indirect rebound. By assuming zero incremental capital costs and the same embodied energy as conventional technologies for efficient appliances, we model an upper bound of the indirect rebound. Future work should also consider the increase in consumer welfare possible through the rebound effect. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This is the second part of a two-part paper that integrates economic and industrial ecology methods to estimate the indirect rebound effect from residential energy efficiency investments. We apply the model developed in part one to simulate the indirect rebound, given an estimate of the direct rebound, using a 2002 environmentally-extended input–output model and the 2004 Consumer Expenditure Survey (in 2002$) for the U.S. We find an indirect rebound of 5–15% in primary energy and CO2e emissions, assuming a 10% direct rebound, depending on the fuel saved with efficiency and household income. The indirect rebound can be as high as 30–40% in NOx or SO2 emissions for efficiency in natural gas services. The substitution effect modeled in part one is small in most cases, and we discuss appropriate applications for proportional or income elasticity spending assumptions. Large indirect rebound effects occur as the U.S. electric grid becomes less-carbon intensive, in households with large transportation demands, or as energy prices increase. Even in extreme cases, there is limited evidence for backfire, or a rebound effect greater than 100%. Enacting pollution taxes or auctioned permits that internalize the externalities of energy use would ensure that rebound effects unambiguously increase consumers'' welfare. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Water reallocation between economic agents has been and continues to be the subject of a considerable amount of research. This paper proposes a method for evaluating how water is reallocated within the economy in response to changes in final demand and changes in the technical water needs of activities and consumers. The empirical application, which is for the Catalan economy, shows important asymmetries in the effects that exogenous inflows and changes in water technical requirements have on water reallocation. In the process of water distribution, exogenous inflows mostly benefit agriculture and damage private consumers. On the other hand, increases in technical water requirements have negative effects on agriculture and positive effects on the other production activities and consumers. The results of the study suggest that agriculture is an important activity not only in terms of water distribution but also in terms of water reallocation due to changes in final demand and technical water needs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The calculation of national ecological footprints using world average productivities can lead to biased results due to the neglect of spatial variation in in-situ ecological impacts. To address this issue, we apply a regional approach to generate ecological footprints based on the multi-region input–output model. This method enables us to trace the origin of regional consumption and to systematically account for the ecological impacts embodied in interregional trade. By using decomposition analysis, we attribute regional differences in ecological footprints to three behavioral factors associated with consumption: the selection of production origins, the structure of consumption and the level of expenditure. An empirical study for China's eight regions shows substantial cross-regional variation in terms of the amount of land appropriation and the mix of land types. The empirical study also confirms that not only how much is being consumed and what is being consumed, but also geographical origins (and, by implication, regionally specific production processes and methods) influence consumption-induced ecological impacts. This paper therefore sheds light on the importance of accounting for interregional variation in consumer behaviors and recommends customized solutions to achieve effective reductions in regional ecological footprints. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper employs the Malmquist–Luenberger (ML) productivity index to evaluate China's growth in total factor productivity (TFP), incorporating undesirable outputs, during the period from 1989 to 2008. The ML productivity index and its components (technical and efficiency changes) are derived from the directional distance function which gives credit for an increase in good outputs and for reductions in undesirable outputs. The average annual ML productivity growth, accounting for undesirable outputs, is 2.46%, whereas the value of the traditional Malmquist productivity index is 4.84%, showing that the true TFP growth in China is overestimated if undesirable outputs are ignored. We explore the strictness in enforcing environmental regulations and its impact on improvements in ML productivity. The results show that, the enforcement of environmental regulations in China is, in general, far below the levels achieved in the best performing regions, and that the more stringent enforcement of environmental regulations would help to improve ML productivity growth in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The analysis of gas emissions by an input–output subsystem approach provides detailed insight into pollution generation in an economy. Structural decomposition analysis, on the other hand, identifies the factors behind the changes in key variables over time. Extending the input–output subsystem model to account for the changes in these variables reveals the channels by which environmental burdens are caused and transmitted throughout the production system. In this paper we propose a decomposition of the changes in the components of CO2 emissions captured by an input–output subsystems representation. The empirical application is for the Spanish service sector, and the economic and environmental data are for years 2000 and 2005. Our results show that services increased their CO2 emissions mainly because of a rise in the emissions generated by non-services to cover the final demand for services. The decomposed effects show a decrease in CO2 emissions due to technological changes between 2000 and 2005 compensated by an increase in emissions caused by the rise in final demand of services. Finally, large asymmetries exist not only in the quantitative changes in the CO2 emissions of the various services but also in the decomposed effects of these changes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In order to understand wider sustainability impacts of consumption and to successfully promote and implement sustainable consumption and production policies, there is a need to capture the whole life-cycle impact of products and services across international supply chains. Multi-region input–output (MRIO) databases are a well described and suitable foundation for global sustainability analyses addressing a wide range of policy and research questions. In this paper we reflect on the reasons for the recent boom in MRIO compilation, summarise the current state of development and discuss future options for MRIO analysis. We list in detail the requirements for efficient and effective MRIO research and propose systemic and institutional changes. We deliberately try to go beyond existing ambitions for MRIO compilation and thus intend to stimulate discussion and to lay out the options for the future of MRIO research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Developing counties are often believed to have excellent conditions for biofuel production, however studies aimed at assessing the sustainability of large scale biofuel programs have generally focused on a few variables related to one scientific domain and one scale. Contrary to this approach, this paper analyzes soybean biodiesel in Brazil using a parallel biophysical and economic assessment at different scales. A Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Societal and Ecosystem Metabolism (MuSIASEM) approach is applied as a scenario analysis tool. A soybean biodiesel energy balance for the specific conditions of Brazil is included and the energy ratio turns out to be 1.09. This means that the energy delivered is higher than the energy invested, however the net energy is very low. The economic impacts are analyzed through input–output analysis. The results show that soybean biodiesel increases energy consumption per hour of work without a corresponding increase in economic labor productivity. Consequently the already low energy efficiency of Brazilian production could get worse. Although Brazil has large expanses of land, the substitution of 20% fossil diesel (i.e. just 3.3% of the country's primary energy consumption) with fully renewable biodiesel might destroy protected areas and forests and increase the GHGs emitted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The aim of this paper is to assess the possible contribution of an input–output model towards two of the basic principles of the sustainability strategy of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) and Post-Normal Science. According to these principles, decision-support tools should offer a holistic perspective and handle high uncertainty. The difficulties in reaching sustainability are due partly to the prevailing use of “narrow-system-boundary” tools that are non-holistic. Consequently, they fail to capture important ecosystem services and ignore interdependencies between them. To comply with the basic principles, our method allows environmental assets to be evaluated in multiple units and integrates results from recent researches in natural sciences. Both enable coverage of interdependencies between ecosystem services. Thereby, we enlarge input–output modelling from the two conventional ecosystem services of sink and provisioning to the most vital ones: the supporting services. An application to the Seine estuary addresses the impacts of maritime transportation infrastructures on nursery habitats for commercial fish. The ecosystem services covered are life support and resource provisioning. Our results show that the restoration of a total of 73.7km2 of nursery areas over the period 2004–2015 would result in a stock of sole in 2015 that exceeds the “business as usual” scenario by 44.2% (uncertainty range: 35.9%–69.9%). In spite of high restoration costs, the negative macro-economic impact is very low. However, on the sector level, a trade-off results between nurseries and three economic sectors. The quantification of such trade-offs in our model is particularly useful to public participation in decision-making. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The environmental load from consumption can be reduced by changing consumption patterns. For an effective consumer policy to reduce the environmental load from society, we need insight into the environmental load from consumption patterns. This requires detailed accurate quantitative environmental information about many consumer products. Current methods for establishing this information about many consumer products do not combine process data with multiregional data. This paper aims to give more insight into the added value of using multiregional data and process data. It also proposes to combine both kinds of data into one application. The use of multiregional input–output data appears to be important to establish the total environmental load from consumption. Using multiregional data and process data both result in substantial changes in the estimated environmental load of consumption products on a more detailed level. The results indicate that using both multiregional and process data will improve the estimates of the environmental impacts of consumption patterns. Therefore, we propose a hybrid multi-region (HMR) method, which is successfully applied for the Netherlands. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper compares two concepts to evaluate the international responsibility of a country with respect to its emissions. Using a multi-regional input–output model, we show that the trade emission balance and the responsibility emission balance yield the same result. In practical work, however, a lack of data availability implies that the same technology assumption has been commonly adopted. In that case, also a third alternative exists, which simply evaluates the emissions embodied in the trade balance of the country. This third alternative yields the same results as the other two approaches at the aggregate level. At the level of individual products, however, the results are clearly different and it turns out that the third alternative answers a different question. That is, it is appropriate for measuring the emission content of the products that cross the border. In our empirical application, we consider Spain in 1995 and 2000, distinguishing nine different gases: CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6, HFCs, PFCs, SO2, NOx, and NH3. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The concept of the water footprint has been recently introduced as an important indicator for human-induced water consumption. The water footprint is defined as the total volume of water used during production and consumption of goods and services as well as direct water consumption by humans. Water is not only consumed directly but also indirectly in production processes. Therefore, calculating the water footprint enables us to quantify total water consumed along the whole global supply chain. In this paper, we develop a regional input–output (IO) model extended by water consumption coefficients to quantify the respective domestic water footprint for different consumption categories for the South-East and North-East of England and the UK, i.e. the water consumed directly and indirectly along the regional supply chain. In addition, we calculate the total water footprints which include both domestic water consumption and the water required in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed in the region under investigation through applying a multi-regional input–output (MRIO) model. Both footprints also include households'' direct consumption of water. With regards to the two regions, we can observe a very pronounced regional disparity of regional (domestic and total) water footprints between the relatively water-scarce South-East and the water-rich North-East of England. We find that the domestic water footprint per capita in the South-East is 22% higher than the domestic water footprint per capita in the North-East. The key water consumers include Agriculture, Food Products, Electricity and Gas Production, and Hotel and Catering. The total water footprints per capita in the South-East (1257m3/year) are more than twice the ones in the North-East (597m3/year). The domestic water footprint focuses only on the supply chain effects and associated water consumption within the regional boundaries, which are usually of higher interest to policy makers and water companies concerned with the balance of supply and demand of water resources within their respective administrative boundaries or watersheds. The total water footprint allows assessing global effects and supports global supply chain management and is also introducing notions of fairness and equity in terms of resource consumption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Climate change research is currently a topic of great interest for economic researchers. In particular, environmental input–output analysis increasingly plays an important role in measuring the economic and environmental effects of sustainable development policies in Europe. Other approaches also exist, such as econometric modelling, in which impacts are quantified on statistical grounds and with certain desirable properties (efficient estimates, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing, etc.) that are not found in the input–output approach. Consequently, this paper merges the two approaches to address the calculation of unbiased and consistent carbon dioxide emission multipliers for Denmark and their respective confidence intervals. The use of the supply and use system instead of the symmetric input–output table also presents the opportunity to avoid the common problems associated with the construction of technical coefficients (technology assumptions, negatives, etc.). Moreover, a new policy-relevant application of these multipliers is introduced: the quantification of the performance of the carbon dioxide emission reductions carried out by industries via external trading. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper estimates the impact of demographic change on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Germany. Since old people display different consumption patterns than young people, an increase in the proportion of old people affects overall consumption patterns. Micro data from a household survey are used to identify age-specific consumption patterns and to project the impact of demographic change on the structure of total consumption expenditure up to the year 2030. The resulting final demand vectors are entered into an environmental input–output model, which allows the calculation of sectoral production, energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. The model results suggest that until 2030, demographic change raises the share of methane in total greenhouse gas emissions and does not contribute to reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Germany. The model is also used to explore the effects of redistributing income between age groups and a policy-induced switch from motor vehicle use to public transport. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

It is important to treat waste properly in physical input–output analysis and a series of publications discussed this topic in this journal recently. In this paper, we propose a new approach to deal with physical input–output table (PIOT) measured in a single mass unit, by which the structure of PIOT need not be changed. The new approach yields consistent and reasonable results. It not only is simpler than the existing approaches but also can reflect the physical reality of economic systems. We first discuss and clarify the concept of different kinds of inputs and outputs of economic systems. We then present the details of the new approach. During the process we define a new multiplier, which builds a bridge between the total input and the final demand in PIOT, just like the traditional Leontief inverse in MIOT. We select the three-sector PIOT for Germany 1990 as a case study to show the validity of the new approach. Finally, we prove the equivalence between the new approach, Suh's approach and Dietzenbacher's approach and the equivalence of non-waste part and waste part multiplier of the new approach and Dietzenbacher's approach. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper proposes a new hybrid input–output model designed to analyze both the generation and treatment of wastewater. This model, named wastewater treatment input–output model (WWIO), can be regarded as an extension of the waste input–output model (WIO) (Nakamura, S. and Kondo, Y., 2002. Input–output analysis of waste management. Journal of Industry Ecology, 6(1): 39–63.). As an application, I compiled the Tokyo Metropolitan WWIO table for 2000, which comprises 482 economic sectors, 11 wastewater treatment sectors, 12 types of wastewater-related waste and 6 types of environmental load. The model was applied to different scenarios to compare alternative wastewater treatment systems. The results indicate that replacing the simple treatment with the high-class treatment improves the quality of treated water while increasing CO2-equivalent emissions. Meanwhile, when the dewatered sludge is incinerated instead of landfilling, both CO2-equivalent emissions and landfill volume decrease. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents a socio-economically disaggregated framework for attributing CO2 emissions to people's high level functional needs. Based around a quasi-multi-regional input–output (QMRIO) model, the study, in theory, takes into account all CO2 emissions that arise from energy used in production of goods and services to satisfy UK household demand, whether the emissions occur in the UK or abroad. Results show that CO2 emissions attributable to households were 15% above 1990 levels in 2004, and that although absolute decoupling occurred between household expenditure and CO2 during the UK's switch from coal to gas in the early 1990s, since then only slight relative decoupling is evident. The proportion of CO2 that arises outside UK borders in support of UK consumption is rising, and reducing these emissions is particularly problematic in a global trading system. Investigation into the carbon footprint of different segments of the UK population shows wide variation: the segment with the highest carbon footprint emits 64% more CO2 than the segment with the lowest. Results show that recreation and leisure are responsible for over one quarter of CO2 emissions in a typical UK household in 2004. We conclude that expanding lifestyle aspirations are significant factors in driving household CO2 emissions, but the study also emphasizes that attention must be paid to the infrastructures and institutions that result in considerable amounts of CO2 being locked up in basic household activities through which people meet their everyday needs for subsistence, protection, and communication with family and friends. The findings highlight the sheer scale of the challenge facing UK policy-makers, and suggest that policies should be targeted towards segments of society responsible for the highest carbon footprints. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper quantifies fossil resource inequalities amongst income quintiles in the UK between 1968 and 2000. It calculates a resource-based Gini coefficient using an input–output based resource allocation model. The results show that the Gini coefficient for total fossil resource consumption grew by 24% over the time period. By comparison the Gini coefficient for overall household expenditure rose by only 13%. The increase in resource inequality was prompted by the rising demand by high income quintiles for goods and services such as: “fuel and light” (heating and lighting the home), “car use” (private transportation), “recreation”, “travel” and “other services”. The analysis shows further that the Gini coefficient for “direct” fossil resources (“fuel and light” and “car use”) was lower and rose less steeply than the Gini coefficient for fossil resources embodied in other goods and services (indirect fossil resource requirements). Investigation into the drivers behind direct and indirect resource inequalities suggests a number of policy conclusions. Firstly, it is clear that policy initiatives to reduce fossil resource requirements (and the associated climate change impacts) must pay careful attention to distributional differences. Additionally, increased attention needs to be paid to the inequalities associated with indirect fossil resources consumption as well as the more visible direct resource inequalities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper we evaluate the relationships between household expenditures and the environmental impact categories climate change, acidification, eutrophication and smog formation, by combining household expenditures with environmentally extended input–output analysis. Expenditure elasticities are examined with regression analysis, and are compared and interpreted on the basis of insight at the product level. With data from the Netherlands in the year 2000, we find that environmental impact increases with increasing household expenditures, although the degree to which the environmental impact increases differs per impact category. Climate change and eutrophication increase less than proportionally with increasing expenditures. Acidification increases nearly proportionally with increasing expenditures, whereas smog formation increases more than proportionally. It appears that the mix of necessities and luxuries to which an environmental impact is related is essential in explaining the relationship. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The analysis of input–output subsystems provides a useful tool for studying the productive structure of the different sectors of an economy. In this paper we develop this analysis to the study of the CO2 emissions associated to the group of branches of the service sector. The decomposition of the total production of the services subsystem allows us to decompose the CO2 emissions into five different components (own, demand volume, feed-back, internal and spill over components). From the results obtained, we can highlight the different roles played by the different branches of services. Transport activities are the services with the highest level of the direct emissions generated in the production of the sector. These activities are required by the other sectors of the economy to a greater degree than they are for their own final demand. Therefore, the production sold to other sectors causes more emissions than its own final demand. However, in the case of other service activities, direct and indirect emissions related to final demand are much more important, due to the strong pull effect of service activities on other activities of the economy. In this respect, Wholesale and retail trade, Hotels and restaurants, Real estate, renting and business activities, and Public administration services should be highlighted. These services receive scarce attention in the design of policies aimed at reducing emissions, but are notably responsible for the major increase in emissions experienced in recent years. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper analyses the economic impact of alternative water policies implemented on the Spanish production system. The methodology comprises two versions of the input–output price model: an average cost formulation and a mark-up formulation. The input–output framework evaluates the impact of the various water policy measures on production prices, consumption prices, intermediate water use and private real income. The results show that a tax on the water used by sectors considerably reduces intermediate water consumption and increases production and consumption prices. On the other hand, according to Jevons'' paradox, improvements in technical efficiency, which lead to a reduction in the water requirements of all sectors and an increase in water production, raise water consumption. The combination of a tax on the water used by sectors and an improvement in the technical efficiency of water in the production sphere takes the pressure off prices and significantly reduces intermediate water consumption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The UK Climate Change Bill proposes to establish legally binding targets for a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050. This paper discusses the challenges posed by measuring progress towards this target. It takes as a premise that the conventional production-based accounting framework, enshrined in the UNFCCC emissions accounting guidelines, is inappropriate for this task because it fails to account for the carbon ‘traded’ across the UK national boundary. Accordingly, it sets out a consumption-based accounting framework – using a two-region Environmental Input–Output (EIO) model – which could in principle measure progress in reducing the emissions attributable to final consumers in the UK. It illustrates the use of this framework to measure the reduction in carbon dioxide achieved by the UK between 1990 (the Kyoto base year) and the year 2004 and compares this against the production perspective. The results indicate that any progress towards the UK''s carbon reduction targets (visible under a production perspective) disappears completely when viewed from a consumption perspective. But the robustness of this conclusion depends critically on the accuracy of underlying economic and environmental datasets as well as specific assumptions concerning imports. By analysing the consistency of UK Input–Output data, we conclude that EIO is still some way from being able to answer the critical question of the carbon trade balance for the UK. In these circumstances, measuring real progress towards carbon reduction in the UK remains elusive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to examine the extent to which the UK can be classified as a net importer of fossil resources and a creator of pollution havens abroad between 1968 and 2000. Using input–output techniques and a derived Resource Flow Classification System, both the physical trade balance (PTB) and pollution trade balance (UTB) associated with fossil resource use are computed. The PTB shows that between 1968 and the early 1980''s the UK is presented as a net importer of direct fossil resource flows. Between 1984 and 2000, the UK is identified as a net exporter of direct fossil resources. These trends are primarily explained by the UK''s discovery and commercial production of North Sea oil and gas fields in the late 1970s. On the other hand, the UTB shows that over the whole period the indirect used flows attributable to the UK''s exports are higher than those attributable to its imports. These findings suggest that the UK did not create pollution havens abroad from the use of fossil resources between 1968 and 2000. However, it is noticeable in both cases that from 1995 the UK''s position as a net exporter has been decreasing considerably. Maturing North Sea oil and gas fields set against increasing demands for fossil fuels and imported goods is signalling a return to the UK''s pre-1984 dependence on direct imported fossil resources and the possible creation of pollution havens abroad. Knowledge of these trends contributes to the evidence base for the UK''s changing import and export structure and the potential environmental repercussions at home and abroad. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This research quantifies the extent to which the US has shifted the environmental impact associated with the goods it consumes to other countries through trade. To achieve this, we use a life-cycle, consumption-based approach to measure the environmental impacts embodied in US trade activities for global warming potential (GWP), energy, toxics, and the criteria air pollutants. We use these values to determine the amount of environmental impact “leaked” from current, production-based approaches to analyzing national environmental trends for the years 1998–2004. We find that in 2004, with reasonable assumptions about the environmental intensity of imports and exports, this leakage exceeds 10% for all studied impacts, exceeds 20% for GWP, energy, and most criteria air pollutants, and exceeds 80% for lead emissions and toxics. By including the environmental impacts embodied in trade activities into national environmental accounts, we provide consumption-based, US per capita, environmental impacts, which we use to evaluate the relationship between income and environmental impact. We find evidence for rising per capita environmental impacts over time in the US, contra the Environmental Kuznets Curve. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for international environmental policy of increasing embodied emissions in trade. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The relationships between economic growth and environmental pressures are complex. Since the early nineties, the debate on these relationships has been strongly influenced by the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis, which states that during the first stage of economic development environmental pressures increase as per capita income increases, but once a critical turning point has been reached these pressures diminish as income levels continue to increase. However, to date such a delinking between economic growth and emission levels has not happened for most atmospheric pollutants in Spain. The aim of this paper is to analyse the relationship between income growth and nine atmospheric pollutants in Spain. In order to obtain empirical outcomes for this analysis, we adopt an input–output approach and use NAMEA data for the nine pollutants. First, we undertake a structural decomposition analysis for the period 1995–2000 to estimate the contribution of various factors to changes in the levels of atmospheric emissions. And second, we estimate the emissions associated with the consumption patterns of different groups of households classified according to their level of expenditure. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Based on sub-sectoral level of economy and detailed traded items, embodied energy (EE) in international trade flow in China is estimated during 1996–2004, and the effects of EE on sustainability are quantified by using one of the most popular indicators—Ecological footprint (EF). A framework of EF method, which is more relevant to realism of specific country, is proposed in this paper. The results show that China is a net importer of EE during the period covered by this study except for the year from 1997 to 1999. Imported, Exported and Net imported EE tends to increase sharply along time series. Net imported energy would increase 38% and energy consumption would increase 2.8% in 2004 if EE were taken into account. Footprintenergy is the most important part of EF components and is significantly affected by EE, and the effects of EE on EF are similar to that of Footprintenergy. Footprintenergy, EF and ecological deficit of 2004 will be underestimated about 2.92%, 1.36%, 2.83%, res pectively, if EE is not taken into the national energy budget. Continuous increase of EF and ecological deficit along time series indicates that China is moving away from sustainability. 1.47 times Chinese territories are accurately occupied by China in 1996 while 1.71 times in 2004. Obviously unsustainability procedure of China is accelerated by EE. The contribution of EE to EF and ecological deficit is small in absolute terms expressed in per capita, but the effects on whole nation are huge if the population of China multiplies them. To curb the increase of EF and ecological deficit and to achieve the goal of sustainability, some policy and measures are also proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The success of China''s economic development has left deep marks on resource availability and quality. Some regions in China are relatively poor with regards to water resources. This problem is exacerbated by economic growth. Flourishing trade activities on both domestic and international levels have resulted in significant amounts of water withdrawal and water pollution. Hence the goal of this paper is to evaluate the current inter-regional trade structure and its effects on water consumption and pollution via ‘virtual water flows’. Virtual water is the water embedded in products and used in the whole production chain, and that is traded between regions or exported to other countries. For this assessment of trade flows and effects on water resources, we have developed an extended regional input–output model for eight hydro-economic regions in China to account for virtual water flows between North and South China. The findings show that the current trade structure in China is not very favorable with regards to water resource allocation and efficiency. North China as a water scarce region virtually exports about 5% of its total available freshwater resources while accepting large amounts of wastewater for other regions'' consumption. By contrast, South China a region with abundant water resources is virtually importing water from other regions while their imports are creating waste water polluting other regions'' hydro-ecosystems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A recent paper in which embodied land appropriation of exports was calculated using a physical input–output model (Ecological Economics 44 (2003) 137–151) initiated a discussion in this journal concerning the conceptual differences between input–output models using a coefficient matrix based on physical input–output tables (PIOTs) in a single unit of mass and input–output models using a coefficient matrix based on monetary input–output tables (MIOTs) extended by a coefficient vector of physical factor inputs per unit of output. In this contribution we argue that the conceptual core of the discrepancies found when comparing outcomes obtained using physical vs. monetary input–output models lies in the assumptions regarding unit prices and not in the treatment of waste as has been claimed (Ecological Economics 48 (2004) 9–17). We first show that a basic static input–output model with the coefficient matrix derived from a monetary input–output table is equivalent to one where the coefficient matrix is derived from an input–output table in physical units provided that the assumption of unique sectoral prices is satisfied. We then illustrate that the input–output tables that were used in the original publication do not satisfy the assumption of homogenous sectoral prices, even after the inconsistent treatment of waste in the PIOT is corrected. We show that substantially different results from the physical and the monetary models in fact remain. Finally, we identify and discuss possible reasons for the observed differences in sectoral prices faced by different purchasing sectors and draw conclusions for the future development of applied physical input–output analysis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The goal of sustainability is to have levels of resource use and waste assimilation sufficient to maintain a good quality of life for citizens, yet be within environmental carrying capacities. In countries with ageing populations, consumption is constrained by the lower incomes of retired people, and therefore, prospects exist for reductions in resource use and pollutant outputs. The extent of this effect is investigated in this study. This paper uses a new approach to quantify, by age cohort, patterns of resource use and residual generation in New Zealand. These use patterns are then projected to 2051 to see what happens as the population ages. Results indicate that resource use and waste production decline as more people enter the 65+ age group. Gains, however, are diminished by the smaller percentage of young people who have the lowest per capita requirements. Projected growth in population numbers swamp any reductions from ageing effects, even when allowances have been made for future technical change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present and discuss a method that allows the disaggregation of national Ecological Footprints by economic sector, detailed final demand category, sub-national area or socio-economic group. This is done by combining existing National Footprint Accounts with input–output analysis. Calculations in the empirical part are carried out by using supply and use tables for the United Kingdom, covering the reporting period 2000. Ecological Footprints are allocated to detailed household consumption activities following the COICOP classification system and to a detailed breakdown of capital investment. The method presented enables the calculation of comparable Ecological Footprints on all sub-national levels and for different socio-economic groups. The novelty of the approach lies in the use of input–output analysis to re-allocate existing Footprint accounts, in the detail of disaggregation by consumption category and in the expanded use of household expenditure data. This extends the potential for applications of the Ecological Footprint concept and helps to inform scenarios, policies and strategies on sustainable consumption. The method described in this paper can be applied to every country for which a National Footprint Account exists and where appropriate economic and environmental accounts are available. The approach helps to save time in data collection and improves the consistency between Ecological Footprint estimates for a particular human society from different researchers. For these reasons, the suggested methodology includes crucial steps on the way towards a standardisation of Ecological Footprint accounts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: When compared to monetary input–output tables (MIOTs), a distinctive feature of physical input–output tables (PIOTs) is that they include the generation of waste as part of a consistent accounting framework. As a consequence, however, physical input–output analysis thus requires that the treatment of waste is explicitly taken into account, because otherwise the results will be grossly underestimated. The treatment of waste has recently led to an interesting methodological debate. This paper reviews the discussion and introduces a new alternative. This alternative reconciles the existing methods and enables us to obtain additional information that cannot be derived from the other methods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Bicknell et al.''s [Ecological Economics 27 (1998) 149] input–output methodology is extended to investigate the Ecological Footprints and interdependencies of 16 regions in New Zealand. There is a particular focus on the Auckland region as a case study example of the application of the methodology. Auckland, New Zealand''s primate city, was found to have the largest regional footprint of 2.32 million ha (20% of New Zealand''s footprint). However, on a per capita basis it had the second lowest footprint of all regions at 2.00 ha per person. The footprint analysis was extended to demonstrate how Auckland was ecologically dependent on other regions, particularly the Waikato region. The footprints of other New Zealand regions are reported, along with international comparisons. The paper also reviews the theory and practice of Ecological Footprinting, as well as commenting on various methodological issues that have arisen in the calculation of Ecological Footprints. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Supporting the lifestyles of the populations of modern cities requires vast quantities of natural resources and leads to environmental stresses such as air and water pollution. Research into the metabolism of cities therefore aims at understanding the physical flows into, within, and out of cities with a view to reducing the use of resources and the environmental impacts. One important physical indicator is energy use. Most studies on cities only consider direct or end-user energy consumption. Since the function of cities is to serve the lives of their residents, indirect energy use in cities, or energy embodied in the consumption of goods and services by its residents, can be regarded as being as important as direct energy use. However, physical models of cities are extremely complex and have difficulty in dealing with boundary issues, and hence the indirect resource requirements. In this paper we use input–output analysis and detailed household expenditure data to yield comprehensive energy use breakdowns for the 14 Statistical Subdivisions of Sydney. Multivariate regression and structural path analysis (SPA) are used to interpret the results. Clear correlations can be drawn between energy use and income, household size, age, and degree of urbanity. The structural path analysis is used to demonstrate how significant differences in lifestyles between inner and outer areas of Sydney leads to different energy use characteristics. This final consumption-based approach to analysing the energy requirements for households has important implications for measures aimed at reducing energy use, which tend to only consider direct energy use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Responsible emissions of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) are currently estimated according to the principle of territorial responsibility; that is, individual countries are only responsible for the anthropogenic CO2 emissions within their own political boundaries. In the context of globalization of world economies, such an accounting principle would easily result in carbon leakage, thus undermining the effects of global warming combat. From the perspectives of benefit principle and ecological deficit, this paper develops a framework to estimate the amount of responsible anthropogenic CO2 over-emissions, which serves as a basis for calculating the amount of anthropogenic CO2 reduction that a defined country is responsible for. The benefit principle assigns the responsibility of pollutant emissions to the driving forces behind the activities that emit pollutants rather than to direct emitters. The perspective of ecological deficit proposes that a country should take the responsibility for reducing pollutant emissions when it runs the deficits of assimilation, that is, its responsible emissions exceeding its capacity of assimilation. The proposed framework is demonstrated using the data of Taiwan in 1996, and discussions on improving and extending the framework in future research are provided. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the last few years some studies have been presented, which link land use accounting and input–output analysis (based on monetary input–output tables (MIOTs)) for the calculation of direct and indirect land appropriation of production and consumption activities. The compilation of the first comprehensive physical input–output tables (PIOTs) for some western European countries in the 1990s opened new possibilities for linking physical accounting and input–output analysis. Using a physical multiplier for this kind of calculation is more appropriate, as the most land intensive sectors are also the sectors with the highest amounts of material flows. Physical input–output analysis illustrates land appropriation in relation to material flows of each of the sectors, which is more appropriate from the point of view of environmental pressures than land appropriation in relation to monetary flows of a MIOT. Physical input–output analysis has so far not been applied for any land-related studies. Based on a physical input–output model of the EU-15, physical input–output analysis is applied in this paper, in order to calculate direct and indirect land requirements for the production of exports from EU-15 to the rest of the world. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]