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This paper empirically analyzes the socioeconomic energy metabolism of Austria in the period 1830–1995. During this period Austria underwent a transition from being a largely agricultural society to being an industrial society. We describe the changes associated with this transition in terms of the ‘physical economy,’ or more precisely, in terms of changes in the throughput of energy, assessed in physical units (J per year). In accordance with currently used methods of material flow accounting (MFA), we define the indicators ‘direct input’ and ‘domestic consumption’ with respect to socioeconomic energy flows. Using these indicators, we analyze the transition from 1830, at which time biomass provided more than 99% of Austria''s domestic energy consumption (DEC), to 1995, when biomass accounted for 30% and fossil energy for 60% of DEC. Total DEC in Austria increased by a factor of 6 in this period. The paper discusses the relevance of these changes for processes of interaction between society and its natural environment, focusing on the interrelations between energy metabolism and changes in land use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Farmers in Europe act within guidelines set by agricultural programs, market demands and biophysical constraints. At the same time, they are social actors embedded in their respective family structures and individual lifestyles and preferences. We here present the socio-ecological land-use model SECLAND that provides an improved representation of the versatility in farmer's characteristics and subsequently its impact on land-use decision making. The model combines (1) an agent-based module (ABM) with farmers as agents whose intrinsic behavioural characteristics are represented via farming styles with (2) a probabilistic GIS-based forest regrowth module. We apply the model for the LTSER Eisenwurzen region in northern Austria to explore land-use patterns until the year 2050 under three different scenarios. Our results show the relevance of explicitly considering differences between the responses of individual farmers to changing framework conditions. In order to devise sustainable development paths for future agriculture, it is important to focus on farmers' well-being and recognize it as being equally important as economic success. • This paper provides the description of the bimodular SECLAND land-use model. • We depict the effect of intrinsic factors on farms decision-making. • We investigate the impact of socio-economic and climatic framework changes on land-use patterns. • We analyse intensity shifts, crop and forest type changes as well as forest transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social consequences of carbon taxation are closely related to the income and expenditure patterns of private households. This paper combines the national Household Budget Survey with EXIOBASE3 emissions data to analyse the distribution of the carbon footprint and differences in the exposure to carbon taxation in Austria. The results indicate a strong variation in greenhouse gas (CO 2 e) emissions along the income distribution, with the top income decile emitting 4.1 times more than the bottom income decile. We distinguish between local, EU-based, and rest-of-the-world (RoW) emissions and study how various approaches to CO 2 e taxation would affect households with different incomes. Finally, we compare the implications of taxing direct domestic emissions only versus taxing the carbon footprint and find socio-demographic factors that explain why some households have higher tax-to-income ratios. Socially balanced carbon mitigation policies should focus on these emitters as they might be particularly exposed to CO 2 e taxation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transformation to climate neutrality of the transport sector raises multiple challenges at a time, with potentially conflicting objectives and further external effects. This calls for a balanced policy package of which empirical assessment is needed in order to i) quantify its effectiveness and ii) reveal effects of potential overlaps and interactions associated with individual measures within the package. This paper analyses the economic, environmental and distributional effects of a policy package that supports low-carbon passenger transport in Austria, co-developed with policy experts and stakeholders. The package includes hard measures such as a mandated phase-out of conventional cars and explicit road pricing, as well as soft measures to foster the uptake of public transportation. To assess these packages we make use of a computable general equilibrium model for Austria that incorporates heterogeneous household groups, CO 2 emissions and a detailed representation of the transport sector. We show that the decoupling of economic welfare and negative external effects of passenger transport is possible with a balanced policy package. Our analysis also highlights potential urban-rural conflicts, regressive impacts and negative public budget implications of single policy measures, issues that the suggested policy package as a whole can mitigate. • We develop policy packages for sustainable passenger transport with experts. • Their effects are analysed using a CGE model of the Austrian economy. • Decoupling of welfare and negative externalities of transport is possible. • Urban-rural conflicts and regressive effects can arise with single measures. • Policy packages can help alleviate potential conflicts and regressive effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates, by means of material flow analysis, the supply management of iron during a historical period of increased demand and induced shortage. The Austrian economy during World War I, when numerous raw materials had to be substituted by secondary sources, is analyzed as an example. The relative abundance of iron in the anthroposphere allowed a 40% increase in annual iron production in 1916 compared to peacetime, made possible by regulation. Almost half of the observed increase resulted from enhanced scrap utilization, covering up to 25% of total demand. By contrast, in peacetime, only 15% of iron consumption was covered by scrap. This sharp increase (from 330,000 to almost 600,000tons/year) was accomplished by establishing authorities and regulations to guarantee sufficient metal supplies to industry and the military. Regulation was limited to pricing and inventories of scrap stocks. Purchase or confiscation of iron goods under civilian possession by the authorities proved unnecessary, while this was not the case for other metals. Although in-use iron stocks were not exploited, a severe shortage of civilian iron goods occurred since almost all iron produced was designated for military use. The historical data illustrate the short-term effectiveness and limits to extensive regulatory measures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents a societal level exergy analysis approach developed to analyse transitions in the way that energy is supplied and contributes to economic growth in the UK, the US, Austria and Japan, throughout the last century. We assess changes in exergy and useful work consumption, energy efficiency and related GDP intensity measures of each economy. The novel data provided elucidate certain characteristics of divergence and commonality in the energy transitions studied. The results indicate that in each country the processes of industrialization, urbanisation and electrification are characterised by a marked increase in exergy and useful work supplies and per capita intensities. There is a common and continuous decrease in the exergy intensity of GDP. Moreover for each country studied the trend of increasing useful work intensity of GDP reversed in the early 1970s coincident with the first oil crisis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper explores the issue of sustainability at the macro scale employing multi-criteria decision aid (MCDA) methods. The incommensurability of values and the essentially multi-dimensional and dynamic nature of sustainability challenge the use of composite measurement indices. This determined the choice of MCDA methods. Austria was chosen as a case study, due to the wide availability of data, especially on indicators of strong sustainability. The structure of the multi-criteria problem comprised the evolution of different sustainability dimensions over time. The process for selecting criteria included a critical assessment of institutional sustainability agendas (UN, EU and Austrian Government) and theoretical recommendations. After an assessment of MCDA methods, the NAIADE method demonstrated the most suitable properties for sustainability assessment. The application of this outranking approach was undertaken in three separate settings: long-term from 1960 to 2003, medium-term, 1970–1995, and short-term, 1995–2003 with varying numbers of criteria. The response of results to the addition of evaluating criteria and periods was tested. The degree of credibility for accepting preference relations was also employed for sensitivity analysis. According to the results of long-term and medium-term assessments, especially in the weak sustainability setting, sustainable progress is taking place in Austria. In the short term, in the stronger sustainability setting and, especially as the number of criteria increases, more incomparable periods appear and trends are less determined. Moreover, it is shown how results crucially depend on the methodological choices. This is one of the first applications of the multi-criteria tools to the dynamic analysis of sustainability at the macro scale. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper proposes that the current growth-oriented exposition of the knowledge economy in literature is not only monistic but also partial. The mainstream''s persistent emphasis on knowledge and economic growth and its neglect of knowledge and other critical issues (such as promoting wealth equalities and environmental conservation) lead to a paucity in terms of the variety of knowledge in the global knowledge commons, which will not fulfill the goal of sustainable development. To maintain a sustainable society with an efficient use of resources, it is necessary to achieve a more equitable distribution of wealth. This type of question, however, continues to be ignored and remains unanswered in both the Austrian analysis of the knowledge problem and the mainstream exposition of the knowledge economy. In this regard, John Stuart Mill''s concept of the stationary state is in line with contemporary analysis of a sustainable society and is worth further review. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Global biomass trade has risen sharply in recent decades. This development was accompanied by increasing concerns about adverse environmental impacts in exporting countries. In Austria, strong preference for food and bioenergy from domestic sources is prevalent, while especially biomass imports for energy are met with scepticism. We here investigate where biomass consumed in Austria originates from, and compare the source-region composition of biomass used for food, energy and material. High product-level detail is achieved by combining a physical consumption-based accounting approach with national statistics and process chain modelling. We find that 55% of the total biomass consumed in Austria originates from domestic forestry or agriculture and 30% from neighbouring countries. In all three use categories, the products with the largest biomass footprints (beef, pork, milk, cereal products, paper, wood fuels) are almost entirely sourced from Central Europe. Biomass originating from non-EU countries accounts for 7.6% of the primary biomass footprint and is most relevant for food (13%), primarily due to livestock feed imports. Although oil crop-based biofuels have relatively large primary biomass footprints overseas, bioenergy in Austria qualifies as more regional than food and material products. [Display omitted] • Analysis of Austria's total biomass consumption in raw material equivalents. • Focus on source regions of primary biomass for energy, food and material. • Overall biomass footprint is primarily located in Austria (55%). • Footprint abroad primarily in neighbouring countries (DE: 15%, CZ: 5%, HU: 4%). • Biomass for energy is more regional than food and biomass for material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change will affect tourism as one of the sectors most dependent on natural resources. Due to the strong dependency of many peripheral areas on tourism, climate change has the potential to destabilize regional economies. The objective of this paper is to assess the impacts of climate change on ski tourism demand. A tourist survey (n = 1957) with a choice experiment conducted in 53 ski areas in Austria provides the data for our analyses. Results show that snow is the most important factor for destination choice. Nevertheless, preferences of respondents are heterogeneous. Measures that enhance price-performance ratio, i.e. lowering lift ticket prices and avoiding crowding, turn out to be the most suitable compensation for suboptimal snow conditions. As long as substitute ski areas with better snow conditions exist, destinations with marginal snow conditions are likely to face severe demand losses (up to 60%). Nevertheless, dynamic pricing has the potential to compensate medium snow reliability. If all destinations are affected by deteriorating snow conditions, total demand reduces by 64% if snow reliability is low. If these conditions and effects are limited to the beginning and the end of the ski season, demand is projected to decline by 18%. • Ski area demand losses in winter tourism are severe if substitute destinations with high snow reliability exist. • Medium instead of high snow reliability is economically bearable for ski destinations. • Yield management with dynamic pricing is a suitable compensation for marginal snow. • Low snow reliability and bad snow experiences could cause market-wide demand losses of 64%. • If seasonality of demand is considered, potential impacts are reduced by 18%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the issue of sustainability at the macro scale employing multi-criteria decision aid (MCDA) methods. The incommensurability of values and the essentially multi-dimensional and dynamic nature of sustainability challenge the use of composite measurement indices. This determined the choice of MCDA methods. Austria was chosen as a case study, due to the wide availability of data, especially on indicators of strong sustainability. The structure of the multi-criteria problem comprised the evolution of different sustainability dimensions over time. The process for selecting criteria included a critical assessment of institutional sustainability agendas (UN, EU and Austrian Government) and theoretical recommendations. After an assessment of MCDA methods, the NAIADE method demonstrated the most suitable properties for sustainability assessment. The application of this outranking approach was undertaken in two separate settings: long-term from 1960 to 2003 and medium-term, 1995–2003 with varying numbers of criteria. The response of results to the addition of evaluating criteria and periods was tested. The degree of credibility for accepting preference relations was also employed for sensitivity analysis. According to the results of the long-term assessment, especially in the weak sustainability setting, sustainable progress is taking place in Austria. In the medium term, in the stronger sustainability setting and, especially as the number of criteria increases, more incomparable periods appear and trends are less determined. Moreover, it is shown how results crucially depend on the methodological choices. This is one of the first applications of the multi-criteria tools to the dynamic analysis of sustainability at the macro scale. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]