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Tunnels are now an integral part of the infrastructure in major cities around the world. For many reasons, these tunnels have horseshoe-shaped cross-sections with round top and flat bottom. This paper presents some improvements to the use of the Hyperstatic Reaction Method-HRM for analysing tunnels with horseshoe-shaped cross-sections when these tunnels operate under the influence of earthquakes, particularly in cases when the tunnel lining is a continuous lining. The analysis used parameters of a tunnel from the Hanoi metro system, as well as parameters of the strongest earthquake that may occur in the central Hanoi area in the improved HRM and 2D numerical methods using the ABAQUS software. On the basis of the results obtained, the paper gives conclusions about the HRM methodology when it is used to calculate tunnels that have horseshoe cross-sections operating under the influence of earthquakes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) are widely used to improve the seismic performance of buildings. This paper aims to introduce BRBs to suspension bridges and assess the seismic performance of bridges with BRBs. Taking the Dadu River Bridge as a case study, an FEA model of the bridge is established, and different seismic measures (BRBs between the deck and the tower, BRBs at the middle of the span to replace the inclined suspenders to connect the deck and the main cables, fluid viscous dampers (FVDs) between the deck and the tower, the combination of BRBs to replace the inclined suspenders as well as FVDs between the deck and the tower) are applied to the suspension bridge. The influence of the parameters of BRBs on the seismic response of the suspension bridge is studied, and the performance of the bridge with BRBs is compared with that of the bridge with FVDs. The results indicate that the use of BRBs in place of the inclined suspenders is beneficial to reduce the displacement of the deck and limit the shear force and bending moment of the tower. The seismic performance of the suspension bridge with BRBs and FVDs is better than that of the bridge with BRBs or FVDs. Therefore, the application of BRBs is a feasible method to improve the seismic performance of the suspension bridge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civil engineering works such as buildings and infrastructure are the carriers of human civilization. They are, however, also the origins of various types of disasters, which are referred to in this paper as civil engineering disasters. This paper presents the concept of civil engineering disasters, their characteristics, classification, causes, and mitigation technologies. Civil engineering disasters are caused primarily by civil engineering defects, which are usually attributed to improper selection of construction site, hazard assessment, design and construction, occupancy, and maintenance. From this viewpoint, many so-called natural disasters such as earthquakes, strong winds, floods, landslides, and debris flows are substantially due to civil engineering defects rather than the actual natural hazards. Civil engineering disasters occur frequently and globally and are the most closely related to human beings among all disasters. This paper emphasizes that such disasters can be mitigated mainly through civil engineering measures, and outlines the related objectives and scientific and technological challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how assessment of seismic vulnerability can be effective in protection against earthquakes. Findings are reported from a case study in a densely populated urban area near an active fault, utilizing practical methods and exact engineering data. Vulnerability factors were determined due to technical considerations, and a field campaign was performed to collect the required data. Multi-criteria decision making was carried out by means of an analytical hierarchy process including a fuzzy standardization. Earthquake scenarios were applied through an implicit vulnerability model. GIS was utilized and the results were analyzed by classifying the state of vulnerability in levels as very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. Seismic resilience was evaluated as vulnerabilities below the moderate state, being about 40% in an intensity of 6 Mercalli and less than 10% in 10 Mercalli. It is concluded that seismic resilience in the area studied is not acceptable, the area is vulnerable in the expected scenarios, and due to the high seismicity of the region, proper crisis management planning is required in parallel with attempts toward retrofitting. In this regard, an emergency map was developed with reference to the assessed vulnerabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the second paper of two, which describe the results of an integrated research effort to develop a four-step simplified approach for design of raft foundations against dip-slip (normal and thrust) fault rupture. The first two steps dealing with fault rupture propagation in the free-field were presented in the companion paper. This paper develops an approximate analytical method to analyze soil-foundation-structure interaction (SFSI), involving two additional phenomena: (i) fault rupture diversion (Step 3); and (ii) modification of the vertical displacement profile (Step 4). For the first phenomenon (Step 3), an approximate energy-based approach is developed to estimate the diversion of a fault rupture due to presence of a raft foundation. The normalized critical load for complete diversion is shown to be a function of soil strength, coefficient of earth pressure at rest, bedrock depth, and the horizontal position of the foundation relative to the outcropping fault rupture. For the second phenomenon (Step 4), a heuristic approach is proposed, which "scans" through possible equilibrium positions to detect the one that best satisfies force and moment equilibrium. Thus, we account for the strong geometric nonlinearities that govern this interaction, such as uplifting and second order (P-Δ) effects. Comparisons with centrifuge-validated finite element analyses demonstrate the efficacy of the method. Its simplicity makes possible its utilization for preliminary design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past few decades, earthquake engineering research mainly focused on the effects of strong seismic shaking. After the 1999 earthquakes in Turkey and Taiwan, and thanks to numerous cases where fault rupture caused substantial damage to structures, the importance of faulting-induced deformation has re-emerged. This paper, along with its companion (Part II), exploits parametric results of finite element analyses and centrifuge model testing in developing a four-step semi-analytical approach for analysis of dip-slip (normal and thrust) fault rupture propagation through sand, its emergence on the ground surface, and its interaction with raft foundations. The present paper (Part I) focuses on the effects of faulting in the absence of a structure (i.e., in the free-field). The semi-analytical approach comprises two-steps: the first deals with the rupture path and the estimation of the location of fault outcropping, and the second with the tectonically-induced displacement profile at the ground surface. In both cases, simple mechanical analogues are used to derive simplified semi-analytical expressions. Centrifuge model test data, in combination with parametric results from nonlinear finite element analyses, are utilized for model calibration. The derived semi-analytical expressions are shown to compare reasonably well with more rigorous experimental and theoretical data, thus providing a useful tool for a first estimation of near-fault seismic hazard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immediately after an earthquake a healthcare system within a city, comprising several hospitals, endures an extraordinary demand. This paper proposes a new methodology to estimate whether the hospital network has enough capacity to withstand the emergency caused by an earthquake. The ability of healthcare facilities and to provide a broad spectrum of emergency services immediately after a seismic event is assessed through a metamodel that assumes waiting time as main response parameter to assess the hospital network performance. The First Aid network of San Francisco subjected to a 7.2 Mw magnitude earthquake has been used as case study. The total number of injuries and their distributions among the six major San Francisco's Emergency Departments have been assessed and compared with their capacity that has been determined using a survey conducted by the medical staff of the hospitals. The numerical results have shown that three of the six considered San Francisco's hospitals cannot provide emergency services to the estimated injured. Two alternatives have been proposed to improve the performance of the network. The first one redistributes existing resources while the second one considers additional resources by designing a new Emergency Department. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a parametric study of self-centering seismic retrofit schemes for reinforced concrete (RC) frame buildings. The self-centering retrofit system features flag-shaped hysteresis and minimal residual deformation. For comparison purpose, an alternate seismic retrofit scheme that uses a bilinear-hysteresis retrofit system such as buckling-restrained braces (BRB) is also considered in this paper. The parametric study was carried out in a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system framework since a multi-story building structure may be idealized as an equivalent SDOF system and investigation of the performance of this equivalent SDOF system can provide insight into the seismic response of the multi-story building. A peak-oriented hysteresis model which can consider the strength and stiffness degradation is used to describe the hysteretic behavior of RC structures. The parametric study involves two key parameters — the strength ratio and elastic stiffness ratio between the seismic retrofit system and the original RC frame. An ensemble of 172 earthquake ground motion records scaled to the design basis earthquake in California with a probability of exceedance of 10% in 50 years was constructed for the simulation-based parametric study. The effectiveness of the two seismic retrofit schemes considered in this study is evaluated in terms of peak displacement ratio, peak acceleration ratio, energy dissipation demand ratio and residual displacement ratio between the SDOF systems with and without retrofit. It is found from this parametric study that RC structures retrofitted with the self-centering retrofit scheme (SCRS) can achieve a seismic performance level comparable to the bilinear-hysteresis retrofit scheme (BHRS) in terms of peak displacement and energy dissipation demand ratio while having negligible residual displacement after earthquake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seismic ground faulting is the greatest hazard for continuous buried pipelines. Over the years, researchers have attempted to understand pipeline behavior mostly via numerical modeling such as the finite element method. The lack of well-documented field case histories of pipeline failure from seismic ground faulting and the cost and complicated facilities needed for full-scale experimental simulation mean that a centrifuge-based method to determine the behavior of pipelines subjected to faulting is best to verify numerical approaches. This paper presents results from three centrifuge tests designed to investigate continuous buried steel pipeline behavior subjected to normal faulting. The experimental setup and procedure are described and the recorded axial and bending strains induced in a pipeline are presented and compared to those obtained via analytical methods. The influence of factors such as faulting offset, burial depth and pipe diameter on the axial and bending strains of pipes and on ground soil failure and pipeline deformation patterns are also investigated. Finally, the tensile rupture of a pipeline due to normal faulting is investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The engineering community has devoted much effort to understanding the response of soil-structure systems to seismic ground motions, but little attention to the effects of an outcropping fault offset. The 1999 earthquakes of Turkey and Taiwan, offering a variety of case histories of structural damage due to faulting, have (re)fueled the interest on the subject. This paper presents a methodology for design of bridges against tectonic deformation. The problem is decoupled in two analysis steps: the first (at the local level) deals with the response of a single pier and its foundation to fault rupture propagating through the soil, and the superstructure is modeled in a simplified manner; and the second (at the global level) investigates detailed models of the superstructure subjected to the support (differential) displacements of Step 1. A parametric study investigates typical models of viaduct and overpass bridges, founded on piles or caissons. Fixed-head piled foundations are shown to be rather vulnerable to faulting-induced deformation. End-bearing piles in particular are unable to survive bedrock offsets exceeding 10 cm. Floating piles perform better, and if combined with hinged pile-to-cap connections, they could survive much larger offsets. Soil resilience is beneficial in reducing pile distress. Caisson foundations are almost invariably successful. Statically-indeterminate superstructures are quite vulnerable, while statically-determinate are insensitive (allowing differential displacements and rotations without suffering any distress). For large-span cantilever- construction bridges, where a statically determinate system is hardly an option, inserting resilient seismic isolation bearings is advantageous as long as ample seating can prevent the deck from falling off the supports. An actual application of the developed method is presented for a major bridge, demonstrating the feasibility of design against tectonic deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The optimal seismic design of structures requires that time history analyses (THA) be carried out repeatedly. This makes the optimal design process inefficient, in particular, if an evolutionary algorithm is used. To reduce the overall time required for structural optimization, two artificial intelligence strategies are employed. In the first strategy, radial basis function (RBF) neural networks are used to predict the time history responses of structures in the optimization flow. In the second strategy, a binary particle swarm optimization (BPSO) is used to find the optimum design. Combining the RBF and BPSO, a hybrid RBF-BPSO optimization method is proposed in this paper, which achieves fast optimization with high computational performance. Two examples are presented and compared to determine the optimal weight of structures under earthquake loadings using both exact and approximate analyses. The numerical results demonstrate the computational advantages and effectiveness of the proposed hybrid RBF-BPSO optimization method for the seismic design of structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of the 2007 Tri-Center Field Mission to Japan, a reconnaissance team comprised of fourteen graduate students and three faculty members from three U.S. earthquake engineering research centers, namely, Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER), Mid-America Earthquake Center (MAE), and Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER), undertook a reconnaissance visit to the affected area shortly after the 2007 Niigata-Chuetsu Oki earthquake. This mission provided an opportunity to review the nature of the earthquake damage that occurred, as well as to assess the significance of the damage from an educational perspective. This paper reports on the seismological characteristics of the earthquake, preliminary findings of geotechnical and structural damage, and the causes of the observed failures or collapses. In addition, economic and socio-economic considerations and experiences to enhance earthquake resilience are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internationally earthquake insurance, like all other insurance (fire, auto), adopted actuarial approach in the past, which is, based on historical loss experience to determine insurance rate. Due to the fact that earthquake is a rare event with severe consequence, irrational determination of premium rate and lack of understanding scale of potential loss led to many insurance companies insolvent after Northridge earthquake in 1994. Along with recent advances in earth science, computer science and engineering, computerized loss estimation methodologies based on first principles have been developed to the point that losses from destructive earthquakes can be quantified with reasonable accuracy using scientific modeling techniques. This paper intends to introduce how engineering models can assist to quantify earthquake risk and how insurance industry can use this information to manage their risk in the United States and abroad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new remediation technique is proposed to mitigate large deformations imposed on buried pipeline systems subject to permanent ground deformation. With this technique, low-density gravel (LDG) with high porosity, such as pumice, is used as backfill in the trench containing the pipe near an area susceptible to PGD. This countermeasure decreases soil resistance, soil-pipe interaction forces and strain on the pipe as the pipeline deformation mechanism changes to a more desirable shape. Expanded polystyrene geofoam has been introduced to decrease the density of the pipeline backfill; however, LDG is more efficient regarding workability during construction, environmental effects, durability, fire safety, and cost-effectiveness. A series of centrifuge model experiments in which the pipelines were subjected to reverse faulting was conducted to evaluate the proposed method. During faulting, the axial and bending strain and pipe deflection were measured. A comparison of the responses of the remediated pipeline and the pipeline without remediation indicates that the proposed technique substantially mitigates the effects of large deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bridges are a part of vital infrastructure, which should operate even after a disaster to keep emergency services running. There have been numerous bridge failures during major past earthquakes due to liquefaction. Among other categories of failures, mid span collapse (without the failure of abutments) of pile supported bridges founded in liquefiable deposits are still observed even in most recent earthquakes. This mechanism of collapse is attributed to the effects related to the differential elongation of natural period of the individual piers during liquefaction. A shake table investigation has been carried out in this study to verify mechanisms behind midspan collapse of pile supported bridges in liquefiable deposits. In this investigation, a typical pile supported bridge is scaled down, and its foundations pass through the liquefiable loose sandy soil and rest in a dense gravel layer. White noise motions of increasing acceleration magnitude have been applied to initiate progressive liquefaction and to characterize the dynamic features of the bridge. It has been found that as the liquefaction of the soil sets in, the natural frequency of individual bridge support is reduced, with the highest reduction occurring near the central spans. As a result, there is differential lateral displacement and bending moment demand on the piles. It has also been observed that for the central pile, the maximum bending moment in the pile will occur at a higher elevation, as compared to that of the interface of soils of varied stiffness, unlike the abutment piles. The practical implications of this research are also highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study deals with dynamic analysis of arch concrete dams, taking rotational components of earthquakes into account. A modified methodology was used to evaluate the rotational components of the earthquake. The translational components of the earthquake have been used in to obtain the rotational components of the earthquake, based on the intersecting isotropic elastic wave propagation. Two rotational components of Taft, Tabas and San-Fernando earthquakes are evaluated based on the translational components of the earthquakes and considering frequency dependencies of incident angle and wave velocity. Finally, dynamic analyses of Morrow Point Dam are presented to evaluate the effects of combined translational and rotational components on the seismic response of the dam. Various conditions of reservoirs, including full and empty state, are considered in the analyses. Fluid-structure interaction was completely taken into account. It was realized that incorporating rotational components increased the maximum compressive and tensile stresses in both empty and full reservoir analyses. Distribution of maximum tensile stresses is very sensitive to the rotational components of the earthquake. Also, it can be concluded that the segregated effect of the rocking component on the response of concrete dams is more effective than the sole effect of the torsional component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the hilly region due to scarcity of the plain area, buildings like set back-step back are more often used and also as a big surge in the telecommunication industries, rooftop tower adaptation is very common story nowadays. In the present study an analogy has been drawn to find out the influence of the rooftop telecommunication tower on the setback-step back building resting on ground at 20° and 30° slopes. A dynamic analysis has been performed and compared on the 4 legged angled section telecommunication tower which is located on the roof top of set back-step back building by varying positions of tower with the existing host structure built up on ground slope of 20° and 30° in both directions (X and Y). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large number of breakwaters have been constructed along coasts to protect humans and infrastructures from tsunamis. There is a risk that foundation soils of these structures may liquefy, or partially liquefy during the earthquake preceding a tsunami, which would greatly reduce the structures’ capacity to resist the tsunami. It is necessary to consider not only the soil’s liquefaction behavior due to earthquake motions but also its post-liquefaction behavior because this behavior will affect the breakwater’s capacity to resist an incoming tsunami. In this study, numerical tests based on a sophisticated constitutive model and a soil-water coupled finite element method are used to predict the mechanical behavior of breakwaters and the surrounding soils. Two real breakwaters subjected to two different seismic excitations are examined through numerical simulation. The simulation results show that, earthquakes affect not only the immediate behavior of breakwaters and the surrounding soils but also their long-term settlements due to post-earthquake consolidation. A soil profile with thick clayey layers beneath liquefied soil is more vulnerable to tsunami than a soil profile with only sandy layers. Therefore, quantitatively evaluating the seismic behavior of breakwaters and surrounding soils is important for the design of breakwater structures to resist tsunamis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study quantifies seismic amplifications in near-shore arising from seaquakes. Within the Boundary Element Method, boundary elements are used to irradiate waves and force densities obtained for each element. Huygens´ Principle is implemented since the diffracted waves are constructed at the boundary from which they are radiated, which is equivalent to Somigliana´s theorem. Application of boundary conditions leads to a system of integral equations of the Fredholm type of second kind and zero order. Several numerical configurations are analyzed: The first is used to verify the present formulation with ideal sea floor configurations to estimate seismic amplifications. With the formulation verified, simple slope configurations are studied to estimate spectra of seismic motions. It is found that P-waves can produce seismic amplifications from 1.2 to 3.9 times the amplitude of the incident wave. SV-waves can generate seismic amplifications up to 4.5 times the incident wave. Another relevant finding is that the highest amplifications are at the shore compared to the ones at the sea floor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt has been made to study the behavior of nailed vertical excavations in medium dense to dense cohesionless soil under seismic conditions using a pseudo-dynamic approach. The effect of several parameters such as angle of internal friction of soil ( ϕ), horizontal ( k ) and vertical ( k ) earthquake acceleration coefficients, amplification factor ( f ), length of nails ( L), angle of nail inclination ( α) and vertical spacing of nails ( S ) on the stability of nailed vertical excavations has been explored. The limit equilibrium method along with a planar failure surface is used to derive the formulation involved with the pseudo-dynamic approach, considering axial pullout of the installed nails. A comparison of the pseudo-static and pseudo-dynamic approaches has been established in order to explore the effectiveness of the pseudo-dynamic approach over pseudo-static analysis, since most of the seismic stability studies on nailed vertical excavations are based on the latter. The results are expressed in terms of the global factor of safety (FOS). Seismic stability, i.e., the FOS of nailed vertical excavations is found to decrease with increase in the horizontal and vertical earthquake forces. The present values of FOS are compared with those available in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A seismic stability assessment of arch dam-foundation systems is presented using a comprehensive approach, in which the main factors that significantly influence the seismic response of an arch dam-foundation system are considered. A large scale finite element model with over 1 million degrees of freedom is constructed for the Baihetan arch dam (289 m high), which is under construction in the Southwest of China. In particular, the complicated geological conditions with faults intersecting interlayer shear weakness zones at the dam base and the dam abutment resisting force body is modeled in the analysis. Three performance indices are adopted to assess the seismic stability of the arch dam. The results demonstrate that the opening of the joints of the Baihetan arch dam is small and the water stop installed between the joints would not be torn during a design earthquake. The yielding formed in the interface between the dam and foundation does not reach the grouting curtain that would remain in an elastic state after an earthquake. The yielding zones occurring on the upper portion of the dam faces extend 1/8 thickness of block section into the dam body and thus cantilever blocks need not be concerned with sliding stability. The faults and interlayer shear weakness zones in the near field foundation exhibit severe yielding, and a potential sliding surface is penetrated. Although the factor of safety against sliding of the surface fluctuates with a decreased trend during an earthquake, the minimum instantaneous value reaches 1.02 and is still larger than 1.0. Therefore, a conclusion is drawn that the Baihetan arch dam-foundation system will remain stable under the design earthquake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seismic demand estimation for a structure is a critical issue for seismic performance assessment so that the potential damage can be estimated realistically. Many researchers proposed simplified methods to estimate the demand of a structure under strong ground motions. However, most of them did not consider degradation and collapse potential of the structures. Even some of theme considered the degradation effect, stiffness and strength degradation effects were considered separately without collapse potential caused by dynamic instability. In this study, collapse potential of SDOF systems caused by dynamic instability with stiffness and strength degradation has been investigated. Nonlinear time history analyses were performed, using an energy-based, strength and stiffness degraded hysteretic model that considers the collapse potential, with 160 earthquake acceleration time histories. An equation was proposed for the estimation of collapse period of SDOF systems as a function of certain strength reduction factor, ductility level and post-capping stiffness ratio. Finally, effects of parameters of the considered hysteretic model and local site conditions on the collapse period were investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seismic ground motion hazard for Nepal has been estimated using a probabilistic approach. A catalogue of earthquakes has been compiled for Nepal and the surrounding region (latitude 26° N and 31.7° N and longitude 79° E and 90° E) from 1255 to 2011. The distribution of catalogued earthquakes, together with available geological and tectonic information were used to delineate twenty-three seismic source zones in Nepal and the surrounding region. By using the seismic source information and probabilistic earthquake hazard parameters in conjunction with a selected ground motion prediction relationship, peak ground accelerations (PGAs) have been calculated at bedrock level with 63%, 10%, and 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years. The estimated PGA values are in the range of 0.07-0.16 g, 0.21-0.62 g, and 0.38-1.1 g for 63%, 10%, and 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years, respectively. The resulting ground motion maps show different characteristics of PGA distribution, i.e., high hazard in the far-western and eastern sections, and low hazard in southern Nepal. The quantified PGA values at bedrock level provide information for microzonation studies in different parts of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seismic response of an isolated vertical, cylindrical, extra-large liquefied natural gas (LNG) tank by a multiple friction pendulum system (MFPS) is analyzed. Most of the extra-large LNG tanks have a fundamental frequency which involves a range of resonance of most earthquake ground motions. It is an effective way to decrease the response of an isolation system used for extra-large LNG storage tanks under a strong earthquake. However, it is difficult to implement in practice with common isolation bearings due to issues such as low temperature, soft site and other severe environment factors. The extra-large LNG tank isolated by a MFPS is presented in this study to address these problems. A MFPS is appropriate for large displacements induced by earthquakes with long predominant periods. A simplified finite element model by Malhotra and Dunkerley is used to determine the usefulness of the isolation system. Data reported and statistically sorted include pile shear, wave height, impulsive acceleration, convective acceleration and outer tank acceleration. The results show that the isolation system has excellent adaptability for different liquid levels and is very effective in controlling the seismic response of extra-large LNG tanks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A linear response history analysis method is used to determine the influence of three factors: geometric incoherency, wave-passage, and local site characteristics on the response of multi-support structures subjected to differential ground motions. A one-span frame and a reduced model of a 24-span bridge, located in Las Vegas, Nevada are studied, in which the influence of each of the three factors and their combinations are analyzed. It is revealed that the incoherency of earthquake ground motion can have a dramatic influence on structural response by modifying the dynamics response to uniform excitation and inducing pseudo-static response, which does not exist in structures subjected to uniform excitation. The total response when all three sources of ground motion incoherency are included is generally larger than that of uniform excitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]