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• Contour currents with different physical natures observed over a drift-moat system • High SSC on the drift due to long-range sediment transport by contour currents • High SSC in the moat due to moat wall erosion by tidal-induced secondary flows • Formation of drifts forced by upslope sediment transport of tidal currents Contourite drifts are ubiquitous sedimentary features in the world′s oceans, and their formation are usually ascribed to sedimentation from contour currents. However, in-situ observations of contour currents and their associated sedimentary processes were inadequate. Here, we present mooring observation results from a drift-moat contourite system in the South China Sea to gain insight into its sediment dynamics and formation mechanism. We found that quasi-persistent contour currents develop in the moat, on and below the drift, yet subject to diverse physical oceanographic processes. High suspended sediment concentrations observed on the drift mainly occur in winter, induced by high levels of sediments transported by contour currents from Taiwan. In the moat, however, high suspended sediment concentrations are mostly caused by erosion of the moat wall during periods of strong tidal currents and low shear variance. Such results underscore the complexity of current patterns and sedimentary processes across various topographic units in the drift-moat contourite system. A novel formation mechanism of the contourite drift is thereby proposed, wherein sediment transport by contour currents brings materials for constructing the drift, while its formation is driven by near-critical reflection and upslope transport of sediments by tidal currents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Overlapping crater populations constrain the total era of martian valley formation. • Martian valleys may have formed intermittently over hundreds of millions of years. • Long-term erosion rates would have been similar to the modern Atacama Desert. A number of studies have constrained the cessation of martian valley network activity to around the Noachian-Hesperian boundary, but the total time period over which these features formed remains poorly constrained. Most attempts to ascertain valley network formative timescales rely on an intermittency factor that varies widely for terrestrial rivers and is unknown for Mars. In this contribution, superposition relationships are used to identify crater populations that pre- and postdate valley network incision, resulting in maximum cumulative valley formation times of ∼108 years. These timescales correspond with long-term erosion rates of ∼0.25 m/Myr, similar to those calculated for the Middle to Late Noachian as well as the central Atacama Desert since the Late Miocene. Assuming sediment transport rates previously calculated for other martian valley networks, this implies a minimum fluvial intermittency of ∼10−5, several orders of magnitude lower than modern day Earth rivers but similar to values independently calculated for some martian fluvial deposits. This low intermittency suggests that martian valley incision may have been significantly hindered by erosion into existing bedrock or by boulder armoring of the valley floor. Alternatively, unlike river valleys on Earth, runoff events driving martian valley network activity may have been non-seasonal, Milankovitch-like cycles, with long eras of quiescence between periods of intensified fluvial activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• (234U/238U) were analyzed for the Changjiang estuary sediments. • Catchment erosion was revealed by sediment comminution age. • Climate changes play a leading role in catchment erosion. • Human activities changed the natural erosion processes since the late Holocene. Catchment erosion not only plays an important role on landscape evolution, but also determines the exposure of rock debris in the regolith profile, and therefore impacts the chemical weathering and associated CO 2 absorption and ultimately global climate. But climate also modulates erosion and complex interaction loops, especially at large scale can hamper a clear understanding of these processes. Here we mainly use Uranium-series Comminution Age (t com) of core sediments from Changjiang estuary to reconstruct the catchment erosion, and the relationship with climate changes and human activities during the last 14 kyrs. Since 14 ka, the sea level has been rising continuously until current highstand system tract in the East China Sea where the Changjiang estuary is located. The sediments in the Changjiang estuary mainly come from the upper reaches erosion zone during this period, but the sediment supply from the middle and lower reaches has gradually increased since the Late Holocene. The period can be divided into two modes. The first mode happens from the Bølling-Allerød period to the Mid-Holocene when the sea level rose rapidly, and the t com of sediment recorded the residence time in the upper reaches erosion zone, with a periodic pattern of t com in a good agreement with climate changes. During the cold and dry periods, the longer t com (average 460 kyrs) is consistent with less precipitation resulting in shallower erosion with transported material mainly coming from the soil with longer residence time. In contrast, during the warm and wet periods, the t com is shorter (average 290 kyrs), with the more abundant precipitations that contribute to deeper erosion in the upper catchment, and more fresh material transported to the estuary through stronger hydrodynamic forces. The second mode is more chaotic and corresponds to 0 to 4 ka, when climate was warm and humid and stable sea level, but t com fluctuated from 200 kyrs to 650 kyrs. The increasing river flooding caused by abundant precipitation leads to lateral migration of the river channel in the middle and lower reaches, and the sediments deposited in the floodplain were eroded and mobilized again. In addition, the rapid development of human activities since 2 ka has accelerated deforestation and agricultural cultivation, leading to localized erosion of the floodplain. These remobilized sediments were transported to the estuary and deposited, resulting in a larger t com value. This study overall indicates that, in the millennial scale, the t com of fine detrital fraction shows a sensitive and quick response to catchment erosion, and provides new insights into quantifying the time scale of sediment source to sink processes and inferring the paleoenvironment accurately climate changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Erosion rates in the MTJ region vary from 0.21 to 0.69 mm/yr. • Erosion rates are higher in drainage basins close to the MTJ. • Erosion rates are similar to uplift rates inferred for the past 96–305 ka. • Erosion rates are lower than uplift rates inferred for the past ∼72 ka. • The MTJ region landscape shows a transient response to an increase in uplift rates. Abstract The Mendocino Triple Junction (MTJ) region in northern California is an archetype for studying landscape response to varying rock uplift rates as they increase toward the triple junction. Underpinning these studies lies the assumption that this landscape has reached a dynamic equilibrium in which rock uplift and erosion rates are equal; however, no study has shown that such an equilibrium actually exists around the MTJ region. Here, we report 10Be- and 26Al-derived erosion rates calculated from isotope concentrations in detrital, fluvial sediment from coastal drainage basins; we then compare these rates with uplift rates inferred from marine terraces that were formed and preserved by uplift during the last ∼305 ka. Erosion rates in the more slowly uplifting southern part of the region range from 0.21–0.32 mm/yr and are consistent with rock uplift rates since 305 ka. However, in the northern transition zone, where uplift rates apparently started to increase about ∼100 ka due to northward migration of the MTJ, erosion rates are higher, 0.43 to 0.69 mm/yr. These rates are similar to uplift rates from 96–305 ka, but substantially less than recent uplift rates of ∼3.5–4 mm/yr inferred for the past ∼72 ka. In the central part of the King Range, finite erosion rates cannot be determined due to (i) the presence of excess 10Be that does not appear to have originated from in-situ cosmic-ray production during erosion and transport of the sediment, and (ii) 26Al concentrations below detection limits. The difference between catchment-wide erosion and recent uplift rates in coastal catchments may be related to a lag in response of hillslopes and tributaries to changes in rates of tectonically-driven relative base-level fall or the uncertainties in rock uplift rates inferred from marine terraces. This study suggests that measurements of both erosion and uplift rates are crucial in assessing the equilibrium state of landscapes and in understanding the topographic features made by surface and tectonic processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the role of topography as a dynamic boundary condition that limits the efficiency of fluvial erosion in the post-glacial Teton Range landscape. The volume of sediment currently stored in two major catchments was estimated using high-resolution LiDAR and geometric reconstructions of depth to bedrock. Seismic reflection data in Moran Bay reveals post-glacial sediment preserved behind a submerged moraine, which isolates the bay from the larger Jackson Lake depocenter. The volume of post-glacial sediment stored in the canyons and bay totals 173.82 ± 19.5336.0 (×10−3 km3), which translates to a catchment-wide sediment production rate of 0.17 ± 0.02 mm/yr. The rock-equivalent sediment volume in Moran Bay is 4.4 ± 0.9 (×10−3 km3), only ∼2.6% of the total post-glacial volume. While the estimated sediment production rate in the canyons is similar to the uplift rate, the denudation rate derived from Moran Bay sediment is 0.004 ± 0.001 mm/yr, implying highly inefficient post-glacial sediment transport. The fluvial system has been disequilibrated by glacial erosion such that interglacial valley profiles lack the steepness needed to transport sediment, delaying sediment evacuation until the next glacial advance, or until uplift sufficiently steepens the fluvial system so that it regains efficiency. Furthermore, colluvial production rates in the deglaciated valleys are close to long-term denudation and uplift rates, suggesting that once topography has been equilibrated to glacial erosion processes, subsequent glaciers do not need to produce much bedrock erosion, but mainly sweep out accumulated sediment to maintain equilibrium. • Sediment budget quantified for two catchments in the Teton Range, Wyoming. • Flattened post-glacial topography limits efficient fluvial erosion. • Sediment transport delayed until next glacial advance or uplift steepens system. • Colluvial production rates are close to long-term denudation and uplift rates. • Subsequent glaciers may not need to produce much bedrock erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Understanding the dynamics of sediment fluxes is a key issue to constrain modern erosion rates in mountain belts and determine the still debated level of control exerted by precipitation, topography and tectonics. The well defined monsoon seasonality in the Himalayas, together with active tectonics and strong relief provide an ideal environment to assess these possible interactions. For this purpose, we present a new compilation of daily suspended sediment data for 12 stations of the major rivers of the Nepal Himalayas. We analyze the relationships of sediment transport with daily river discharge and precipitation data as well as with morphometric parameters. We show that suspended sediment concentrations vary systematically through the seasons and asynchronously to river discharge displaying a hysteresis effect. This clockwise hysteresis effect disappears when suspended sediment fluxes are directly compared with direct storm discharge. Therefore we attribute the hysteresis effect to groundwater dilution rather than a sediment supply limitation. We infer a rating model to calculate erosion rates directly from long river discharge chronicles. We show that, when normalized by drainage area and mean sediment flux, all rivers exhibit the same trend. This similarity implies that all river basins have the same erosion behavior, independent of location, size and catchment characteristics. Erosion rates calculated from suspended sediment fluxes range between 0.1 and 2.8mm/yr. The erosion rates of the three main basins of Nepal are in the range 0.9–1.5mm/yr, Erosion rates in the Higher Himalayas are relatively low (<0.5mm/yr, except for Kali Gandaki), while in the Lesser Himalayas they range from 0.2 to 2mm/yr. We propose that material transport in the rivers depends on hillslope sediment supply, which is, in turn, controlled by those rainfalls producing direct runoff. In other words, the rivers in the Nepal Himalayas are supply-limited and the hillsopes as a contributing source are transport-limited. We also show that erosion processes are not as much controlled by infrequently occurring extreme precipitation events, than by moderate ones with a high recurrence interval. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Large earthquakes deform the Earth''s surface and drive topographic growth in the frontal zones of mountain belts. They also induce widespread mass wasting, reducing relief. The sum of these two opposing effects is unknown. Using a time series of landslide maps and suspended sediment transport data, we show that the MW7.6 Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan was followed by a period of enhanced mass wasting and fluvial sediment evacuation, peaking at more than five times the background rate and returning progressively to pre-earthquake levels in about six years. Therefore it is now possible to calculate the mass balance and topographic effect of the earthquake. The Choshui River has removed sediment representing more than 30% of the added rock mass from the epicentral area. This has resulted in a reduction of surface uplift by up to 0.25m, or 35% of local elevation change, and a reduction of the area where the Chi-Chi earthquake has built topography. For other large earthquakes, erosion may evolve in similar, predictable ways, reducing the efficiency of mountain building in fold-and-thrust belts and the topographic expression of seismogenic faults, prolonging the risk of triggered processes, and impeding economic regeneration of epicentral areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study we applied 40Ar/39Ar dating methods to muscovite grains in sands from the modern Red and Yangtze Rivers in order to constrain palaeo and modern erosion patterns and sediment transport processes. Micas in the headwaters of the Red River and its southern Da River tributary are dominantly Cenozoic, while the northern Lo River tributary shows a typical 160–220Ma population. The lower reaches of the Red River comprise 53% of such Triassic grains, indicating that the Lo River is the most important net contributor to the modern delta. However, this contrasts with zircon U–Pb data indicating that the upper reaches of the Red River dominate that mineral group. We suggest that the mismatch reflects the rapid transport of mica relative to zircon in the river and the fact that the Red River is not in equilibrium. We hypothesize that the zircons were eroded >8ka under a regime of stronger monsoon that enhanced erosion in the northern drainage basin, while modern erosion is focused in the south, especially in the Song Chay Massif. Micas from the upper Yangtze River are resolvably older than those in the Red River (230–250Ma), so that this method could be used to test for drainage capture in palaeo-delta sediments. Micas in the modern Yangtze delta are generally much younger than those in the upper reaches and indicate that erosion in the Longmen Shan (Sichuan) and neighbouring regions is more important than the upper Yangtze in supplying sediment, reflecting the stronger monsoon rains in those areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Hillslopes have been intensively studied by both geomorphologists and soil scientists. Whereas geomorphologists have focused on the physical soil production and transport on hillslopes, soil scientists have been concerned with the topographic variation of soil geochemical properties. We combined these differing approaches and quantified soil chemical weathering rates along a grass covered hillslope in Coastal California. The hillslope is comprised of both erosional and depositional sections. In the upper eroding section, soil production is balanced by physical erosion and chemical weathering. The hillslope then transitions to a depositional slope where soil accumulates due to a historical reduction of channel incision at the hillslope''s base. Measurements of hillslope morphology and soil thickness were combined with the elemental composition of the soil and saprolite, and interpreted through a process-based model that accounts for both chemical weathering and sediment transport. Chemical weathering of the minerals as they moved downslope via sediment transport imparted spatial variation in the geochemical properties of the soil. Inverse modeling of the field and laboratory data revealed that the long-term soil chemical weathering rates peak at 5gm− 2 yr−1 at the downslope end of the eroding section and decrease to 1.5gm− 2 yr−1 within the depositional section. In the eroding section, soil chemical weathering rates appear to be primarily controlled by the rate of mineral supply via colluvial input from upslope. In the depositional slope, geochemical equilibrium between soil water and minerals appeared to limit the chemical weathering rate. Soil chemical weathering was responsible for removing 6% of the soil production in the eroding section and 5% of colluvial influx in the depositional slope. These were among the lowest weathering rates reported for actively eroding watersheds, which was attributed to the parent material with low amount of weatherable minerals and intense coating of the primary minerals by secondary clay and iron oxides. We showed that both the morphologic disequilibrium of the hillslope and the spatial heterogeneity of soil properties are due to spatial variations in the physical and chemical processes that removed mass from the soil. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

It has been proposed that at short timescales of 102–105 yr, climatic variability can explain variations in sediment flux, but in orogens with pronounced climatic gradients rate changes caused by the oscillating efficiency in rainfall, runoff, and/or sediment transport and deposition are still not well-constrained. To explore landscape responses under variable climatic forcing, we evaluate time windows of prevailing sediment aggradation and related paleo-erosion rates from the southern flanks of the Dhauladhar Range in the western Himalaya. We compare past and present 10Be-derived erosion rates of well-dated Late Pleistocene fluvial landforms and modern river sediments and reconstruct the sediment aggradation and incision history based on new luminescence data. Our results document significant variations in erosion rates ranging from 0.1 to 3.4 mm/yr over the Late Pleistocene. We find that, during times of weak monsoon intensity, the moderately steep areas (hillslope angles of 27 ± 13°) erode at lower rates of 0.1–0.4 mm/yr compared to steeper (>40°) crestal regions of the Dhauladhar Range that erode at 0.8−1.3 mm/yr. In contrast, during several millennia of stronger monsoon intensity, both the moderately steep and high slope areas record higher erosion rates (>1-3.4 mm/yr). Lithological clast-count analysis shows that this increase of erosion is focused in the moderately steep areas, where Lesser Himalayan rocks are exposed. Our data thus highlight the highly non-linear response of climatic forcing on landscape evolution and suggest complex depositional processes and sedimentary signals in downstream areas. • Paleo-erosion rates in the Himalaya are modulated by climate forcing. • Erosion rates are higher during episodes of strong monsoon. • Topographic response to climate change is non-linear. • Rapid erosion during short-lived strong monsoon phases result in valley aggradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The uranium-series isotope signatures of the suspended and dissolved load of rivers have emerged as an important tool for understanding the processes of erosion and chemical weathering at the scale of a watershed. These signatures are a function of both time and weathering-induced fractionation between the different nuclides. Provided appropriate models can be developed, they can be used to constrain the residence time of river sediment. This chronometer is triggered as the bedrock starts weathering and the inferred timescale encompasses the residence time in the weathering profile, storage in temporary sediment deposits (e.g. floodplain) and transport in the river. This approach has been applied to various catchments over the past five years showing that river sediments can reside in a watershed for timescales ranging from a few hundreds of years (Iceland) to several hundreds of thousands of years (lowlands of the Amazon). Various factors control how long sediment resides in the watershed: the longest residence times are observed on stable cratons unaffected by glacial cycles (or more generally, climate variability) and human disturbance. Shorter residence times are observed in active orogens (Andes) or fast-eroding, recently glaciated catchments (Iceland). In several cases, the residence time of suspended sediments also corresponds to the time since the last major climate change. The U-series isotope composition of rivers can also be used to predict the river sediment yield assuming steady-state erosion is reached. By comparing this estimate with the modern sediment yield obtained by multi-year sediment gauging, it is clear that steady-state is seldom reached. This can be explained by climate variability and/or human disturbance. Steady-state is reached in those catchments where sediment transport is rapid (Iceland) or where the region has been unaffected by climate change and/or human disturbance. U-series are thus becoming an important tool to study the dynamics of erosion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Functional relationships between landscape morphology and denudation rate allow for the estimation of sediment fluxes using readily available topographic information. Empirical studies of topography-erosion linkages typically employ data with diverse temporal and broad spatial scales, such that heterogeneity in properties and processes may cloud fundamental process-scale feedbacks between tectonics, climate, and landscape development. Here, we use a previously proposed nonlinear model for sediment transport on hillslopes to formulate 1-D dimensionless functions for hillslope morphology as well as a generalized expression relating steady-state hillslope relief to erosion rate, hillslope transport parameters, and hillslope length. For study sites in the Oregon Coast Range and Gabilan Mesa, CA, model predictions of local relief and average hillslope gradient compare well with values derived from high-resolution topographic data acquired via airborne laser altimetry. Our formulation yields a nondimensional number describing the extent to which the nonlinearity in our gradient-flux model affects slope morphology and landscape response to tectonic and climatic forcing. These results should be useful for inferring rates of hillslope denudation and sediment flux from topography, or for coarse-scale landscape evolution simulations, in that first-order hillslope properties can be calculated without explicit modeling of individual hillslopes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Recent years have seen a rapid expansion in the acquisition and use of information on diffusive transport in phases relevant to the solid Earth (crystals, melts and fluids). Although far from complete, the data base on diffusion coefficients is now sufficiently large that broad constraints can be placed upon the length- and time scales of many natural transport phenomena in which diffusion plays a role. Conversely, observations of diffusion progress in specific natural samples can be used to extract time–temperature information for a variety of geologic and geochemical processes, ranging from sediment burial and crustal erosion to fluid-mediated reactions and biosignature retention. Despite this undeniable progress, several major challenges remain that largely define the frontiers of research in solid-Earth diffusion. Perhaps foremost among these is the need to address and understand the multi-scale, multi-path aspects of diffusion in many systems—a complication that is not limited to polyphase materials (individual mineral grains can exhibit clear indications of multi-path behavior even when visible evidence of such paths is lacking). Many other diffusion frontiers are linked in one way or another to this multi-scale issue; they include: diffusion of molecular H2O and the effect of H species on diffusion in minerals and rocks; diffusive fractionation of multiple isotopes of a single element; diffusion at the extreme conditions of the deep Earth; reconciliation of observations from natural samples and laboratory studies; and development of theoretical approaches to ‘predict’ diffusion behavior in regions inaccessible to observation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Rivers from the upper Rio Madeira basin (Bolivia) have been studied with uranium-series isotopes in order to constrain the timescales of weathering and sediment transfer from the Andes through the Amazon tropical plain. Uranium (U), thorium (Th) and radium (Ra) isotopes (238U–234U–230Th–226Ra and 232Th) have been analyzed in the suspended load (>0.2 μm) of rivers. Increasing 230Th excesses relative to 238U in suspended particles from the Andes to the tropical plain is interpreted as an increasing duration of weathering during sediment transport and storage in the foreland basin. Model calculations for (230Th/238U) and (226Ra/230Th) activity ratios in suspended particles using a continuous weathering model indicates that: (i) the timescale for production, storage and transport of sediments in the Andean Cordillera is only a few kyr, (ii) the storage time of suspended sediments in the foreland basin is 5±1 kyr and (iii) the average transfer time of suspended sediments from the Andes to the confluence of Rio Madeira with the Amazon River is 17±3 kyr. An implication of these short timescales is that the bedrock eroded must have lost part of its uranium during one or several past erosion cycles. This demonstrates the recycling of sediments through several erosion cycles before transfer to the oceans. The calculation of long-term (>1 kyr), steady-state erosion rates indicates that they are much lower than present-day rates. This increase in denudation rates must be recent and could be explained by an increase in precipitation ∼4 ka ago, as suggested by palaeoclimatic evidences and the draining of transient sedimentary basins encountered on the Altiplano and easily eroded. This suggests that climatic variability rather than tectonics alone produces high erosion rates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We have measured 238U–234U–230Th radioactive disequilibria in five size fractions of colloids and suspended sediments for four rivers from the Murray–Darling River basin (SE Australia). Continuous compositional trends of composition are observed for (234U/238U) and (230Th/238U) activity ratios over the range of size fractions studied. They are explained by the variable contribution of two components: detrital alumino-silicates and organic matter. Using relationships between activity ratios and the loss-on-ignition, it is possible to estimate the U-series isotopic composition of both detrital and organic end-members, which provide the best estimate for the composition of the true detrital phase (i.e. controlled only by the removal of elements through weathering) and the true dissolved phase (i.e. colloid-free), respectively. When performing a single filtration at 0.2 μm, it appears that size fractions > and <0.2 μm underestimate the disequilibrium in both the true detrital and dissolved phases, respectively. We show that erosion does not currently operate in steady state in the Murray–Darling basin and catchment soils are currently being degraded. This could be a consequence of the intensification of agriculture and deforestation over the past 100 yr. The residence time of sediments in the different sub-basins is calculated by computing the composition of the detrital phase with a continuous weathering model. It yields 11±2 kyr for the Darling River basin, only 2–3±1 kyr for the Murray River and 7±2 kyr for the Goulburn River. These values are correlated with the age of changes in river dynamics, in turn probably controlled by climate fluctuation, and indicate the age of the modern river system for each sub-basin. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Understanding when, where, and how frequently liquid water was stable on Mars since the Late Noachian/Early Hesperian (3.2-3.9 Ga) is important for understanding the evolution of Mars' climate and hydrology. Some relatively young features on Mars require multiple wetting events to form, whereas others are consistent with single wetting events. Small and rare exit breach craters or "pollywogs" are craters between 0.5 and 15 km in diameter with valleys leading away from the lowest point on their rims but no visible inlet valleys. These craters must have been filled with water to the point of overspill to form the observed valleys. The two possible water sources are precipitation and groundwater. In this paper we use measurements from Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of 18 pollywog craters (21 outlet valleys) and a fixed channel width 0-D breach erosion model to determine whether pollywog exit breach valleys are consistent with a single crater overspill event, or if their formation requires multiple overspill events. Our model, which we compare to a selection of dam breaching events on Earth, predicts runaway erosion for two pollywog exit breaches. No runaway erosion is observed. We discuss potential explanations for this mismatch between the data and our model. We show that the majority of pollywog craters on Mars are consistent with formation during a single crater overspill event, incorporating a work around for the long-standing problem of unknown grainsize into our approach. Three pollywog craters require either multiple events or sustained water supply to drive erosion. We discuss potential source mechanisms for crater-filling water and conclude that pollywogs either formed in a single erosion event, driven by groundwater discharge, or through many small erosion events, driven by draining of small meltwater lakes formed on crater-filling bodies of ice. • Small exit breach craters record wet events on Hesperian/Amazonian Mars. • We use a fixed channel width 0-D breach erosion model to predict valley incision in one overspill event. • Pollywogs either formed during a single, groundwater-driven crater overspill event, or smaller repeated climate-driven draining events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]