Search

Psychotherapy has been shown to be an effective treatment option for depressive disorders; however, its effectiveness varies depending on patient and therapist characteristics and the individual form of the depressive disorder.The aim of this article is to present the current evidence for psychotherapeutic antidepressive treatments for patients with chronic and treatment-resistant depression as well as for patients with mental and somatic comorbidities.During the revision of the currently valid German S3- and National Disease Management Guideline (NDMG) on unipolar depression published in 2015, a comprehensive and systematic evidence search including psychotherapy for specific patient groups was conducted. The results of this search along with a systematic update are summarized.Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in reducing depressive symptoms in patients suffering from chronic and treatment-resistant depression and in patients with mental and somatic comorbidities. The evidence is insufficient particularly for patients with mental comorbidities.Based on the current evidence and clinical expertise the NDMG recommends psychotherapy alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy to treat most of these depressive patient groups. Evidence gaps were identified, which highlight the need for further research.

Depressive disorders are associated with a high burden of suffering and significantly reduce the well-being and the self-esteem of affected patients. Psychotherapy is one of the main treatment options for depressive disorders.The aim of this article is to present the current evidence for antidepressive psychotherapeutic treatments.During the revision of the German S3- and National Disease Management Guideline (NDMG) on unipolar depression in 2015, a comprehensive and systematic evidence search was conducted. The results of this search along with a systematic update are summarized.The most intensively investigated psychotherapeutic method is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which proved to be effective in many trials. Evidence also exists for psychodynamic psychotherapy and interpersonal therapy (IPT), followed by systemic therapy and client-centered psychotherapy; however, the evidence is less robust.Psychotherapy alone or in combination with pharmacotherapy was shown to be an effective treatment option. Psychotherapy represents a key element in the treatment of depressive disorders.

Borderline personality disorders (BPD) are severe mental diseases which place high pressure on the psychiatric healthcare system. Nowadays, well-tested, disorder-specific treatment concepts are available also for inpatient treatment in Germany. These show very good and long-term improvements in the psychopathology as well as posttreatment social participation; however, prerequisites for the implementation of these evidence-based inpatient psychotherapy programs are well-trained treatment teams and appropriate financing of resource expenditure.The aim was to formulate a definition of normative needs for treatment duration and intensity for a guideline-conform, empirically proven and effective inpatient treatment of borderline personality disorder as well as the derived personnel requirements in comparison to the currently available resources within the framework of the Psychiatry Personnel Act (Psych-PV).The resource requirements were established based on evaluated hospital ward models, the recommendations of the S2 guidelines and the criteria of specialist societies and compared with the personnel stipulations according to the Psych-PV.The results for a normatively established treatment program showed a pronounced deficit in the financing of the evaluated resource requirements, even when the stipulations laid down in the Psych-PV were implemented to 100 %.Disorder-specific inpatient treatment programs for borderline personality disorder have been scientifically proven to be highly effective; however, resource analyses show that the personnel requirements necessary for effective implementation of these programs are much higher than those allocated by the funding according to the Pysch-PV. The current underfunding leads to inadequate treatment outcomes with high readmission rates and as a result high direct and indirect costs of illness.

Guideline-oriented inpatient psychiatric and psychotherapeutic treatment of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an important part of the care available for these patients. It may not be adequately reflected in the current personnel resources available according to the German psychiatry personnel regulation (Psych-PV).The goal of this work was to assess the personnel resources necessary for a guideline-oriented inpatient psychiatric and psychotherapeutic treatment of patients with OCD and compare the necessary resources with the resources available according to Psych-PV.Based on the German national guidelines for OCD and a meta-analysis on treatment intensity, we formulated a normative weekly treatment plan. Based on this plan we calculated the necessary personnel resources and compared these with the resources available according to Psych-PV category A1 (standard care).The weekly treatment time for a guideline-oriented inpatient psychiatric and psychotherapeutic treatment of patients with OCD is 23.5 h per week. This corresponds to a weekly personnel requirement of 20.9 h. This requirement is only partly reflected in the Psych-PV (17.3 h, 82.8 %). The coverage of personnel resources by Psych-PV is even lower for psychotherapy provided by psychiatrist and psychologists (38.3 %, i. e. 183 min in the normative plan versus 70 min in Psych-PV).The current paper shows that the personal resources required for a guideline-oriented inpatient psychiatric and psychotherapeutic treatment of patients with OCD is not adequately reflected in the German psychiatry personnel regulation (Psych-PV). The actual shortage may be underestimated in our paper.

Chronic depression is a frequent mental disorder representing a significant subjective and economic burden. Effective disorder-specific treatment of chronic depression presupposes sufficient funding of treatment resources.Definition of normative needs of personnel resources for guideline-compliant and evidence-based inpatient treatment of chronic depression based on treatment duration and intensity. The personnel resources determined were compared to the resources provided on the basis of the existing reimbursement system (Psych-PV) in Germany.Resources determined according to national treatment guidelines and empirical evidence were compared to personnel resources dictated by the German Psych-PV reimbursement algorithm.The current funding algorithm greatly underestimates the resources needed for a guideline-compliant and evidence-based treatment program, even if healthcare providers received 100 % reimbursement of the sum determined by the Psych-PV algorithm.The results clearly show that even in the case of a full coverage of the current German reimbursement algorithm, funding allocation for evidence-based inpatient treatment of chronic depression is insufficient. In addition, the difficulties of specific coding of chronic depression in the ICD-10 system generates a major problem in the attempt to measure the current resources needed for sufficient treatment.

The reimbursement of inpatient psychiatric psychotherapeutic/psychosomatic hospital treatment in Germany is regulated by the German personnel ordinance for psychiatric hospitals (Psych-PV), which has remained unchanged since 1991. The aim of this article was to estimate the personnel requirements for guideline-adherent psychiatric psychotherapeutic hospital treatment.A normative concept for the required psychotherapeutic "dose" for anxiety disorders was determined based on a literature review. The required staffing contingent was compared to the resources provided by the Psych-PV based on category A1.According to the German policy guidelines for outpatient psychotherapy, a quota of 25 sessions of 50 min each (as a rule plus 5 probatory sessions) is reimbursed. This approach is supported by studies on dose-response relationships. As patients undergoing inpatient treatment for anxiety disorders are usually more severely ill than outpatients, a contingent of 30 sessions for the average treatment duration of 5 weeks seems appropriate in order to fully exploit the costly inpatient treatment time (300 min per patient and week). In contrast, only 70 min are reimbursed according to the Psych-PV. The total personnel requirement for the normative concept is 624 min per patient and week. The Psych-PV only covers 488 min (78 %).Currently, the time contingents for evidence-based psychiatric psychotherapeutic/psychosomatic hospital care are nowhere near sufficient. In the development of future reimbursement systems this needs to be corrected.

Although national treatment guidelines and current publications of the German Federal Joint Committee (Gemeinsamer Bundesausschuss) recommend cognitive behavior therapy for all patients with schizophrenia, the implementation of these recommendations in current inpatient and outpatient treatment is only rudimentary.The aim of this study was to systematically search randomized controlled studies (RCTs), meta-analyses and the guidelines of the German Association for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychosomatics and Neurology (DGPPN) and the British National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in order to assess the number of personnel necessary for psychiatric and therapeutic inpatient treatment in line with present guidelines. Moreover, the number of staff required was compared with the personnel resources designated by the German psychiatry personnel regulations (Psych-PV).The German and NICE guidelines, RCTs and meta-analyses were analyzed and an adequate weekly treatment plan for an inpatient unit was developed. Moreover, the number of personnel necessary to realize the treatment plan was calculated.In order to realize adequate inpatient treatment approximately 107 min extra for medical psychotherapeutic personnel per patient and week (of which 72 min for psychotherapy) and another 60 min for nursing staff per patient and week are required in addition to the current Psych-PV regulations. Thus, implementation in an open ward with 20 inpatients would require 3.62 positions for physicians, 0.7 positions in psychology and 12.85 positions for nursing staff (including management positions and night shifts).These evidence-based recommendations for precise specifications of inpatient treatment should lead to improved inpatient treatment in line with present guidelines. Moreover, outpatients and day patients could be included in this treatment model. The results should be considered in the construction of the future prospective payment system for inpatient psychiatric healthcare in Germany.

The general efficacy of psychotherapeutic approaches in the treatment of mental disorders has been demonstrated by meta-analyses. Disorder-specific methods are increasingly dominating the field. In the field of depression psychological interventions have proven to be as equally effective as pharmacotherapy in mild and moderate depressives but with longer lasting effects after termination of treatment. The combination of both methods is particularly relevant for the therapy of severe and chronic depression. The indications should be differentiated beyond the severity and course of the disorder, e.g. according to previous traumatization, comorbidity, patient difficulty and the empirical evidence of the different approaches.

Unipolare Depressionen zahlen zu den haufigsten Beratungsanlassen und Erkrankungen in der Versorgung. Obwohl die Diagnostik und Therapie der Depression in den letzten Jahren Fortschritte gemacht hat, besteht noch deutliches Optimierungspotenzial. Die Ausrichtung der Behandlung an evidenzbasierten Leitlinien bildet hierbei einen zentralen Ansatzpunkt. Die neue S3- und Nationale Versorgungsleitlinie Unipolare Depression, deren Erstellung von der DGPPN koordiniert und die von 29 Fachgesellschaften und Berufsverbanden konsentiert wurde, stellt den ambitionierten Versuch dar, Evidenz und klinischen Konsens zum „state of the art“ in der Depressionsbehandlung abzubilden. Fur die Pharmakotherapie der Depression konnen differenzierte Empfehlungen, auch in Abgrenzung und in Erganzung zur Psychotherapie, gegeben werden.

The use of psychotherapeutic strategies is essential in the treatment of affective disorders. Psychotherapy proved to be at least equivalent to antidepressant medication in the treatment of mild to moderate depression. In severe cases, the combination of both treatments is considered by guidelines to be the standard treatment. Psychotherapeutic approaches show a longer latency than antidepressants; however, the effects are longer lasting. Regarding the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy sobering results have been published recently. Therefore, the further development of psychotherapy deserves special attention. Cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy provide the highest evidence. The empirical basis for psychodynamic psychotherapies is still limited. In the treatment of chronic depression a new approach - cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy- is gaining importance. There is a trend towards an increasing specification of psychotherapy for distinct subgroups of depressed patients. Challenges for the future include increasing treatment efficacy, investigating mechanisms of efficacy and predictors for a differential indication, and making effective approaches generally available to all patients.

Staffing regulations have determined the number of qualified staff required for sufficient, appropriate and economical inpatient mental health care in Germany since 1991. This minimum level of structural quality will probably be abolished in the context of the convergence of hospital budgets starting in 2019.The aim of this study was to analyze the current fulfilment of staffing regulations in terms of time per patient in a large nationwide sample.The required minutes of staff time as defined by staffing regulations were calculated for each patient using the treatment classifications provided by a large nationwide database. The actual use of staff time was calculated on the basis of average costs published by the German Institute for Hospital Reimbursement. Both figures were compared to calculate the fulfilment of staffing regulations.The study included approximately 95,000 inpatient episodes from 46 psychiatric hospitals and departments with a total length of stay of almost 2.5 million days. On average, the weekly use of staff resources per patient was 190 min (10 %) below the requirements of the staffing regulations. The largest gap in absolute terms was found in nursing staff where the weekly time per patient was 189 min (14 %) below the requirements of the staffing regulations.The convergence of psychiatric hospital budgets starts in 2019 below a level of funding required to fulfil staffing regulations. This would perpetuate inadequately funded structures and should initially be opposed with a demand for complete fulfilment of staffing regulations. Thereafter, a normative consent should be reached to define the resources required for current inpatient mental health care.

Mental disorders connected with work stress are of growing importance for the health care system. Following a heated debate on burnout in Germany, at present various approaches on how to prevent the development of burnout syndromes, how to ensure a need adapted treatment for employees with a manifest disorder and how the process of returning to work already addresses aspects of secondary prevention are under discussion. This leads to different fields of activities for company health management and the health care system and structural improvements are essential.

In general work involves health promoting functions but can also have hazardous impacts on well-being. Due to a massive change in working conditions it has become increasingly more recognized that depressive disorders are highly prevalent at the workplace and that work stress belongs to the most common triggers of depressive disorders, particularly in men. It is relevant to differentiate between subjectively experienced burnout and clinical depression. The best investigated psychosocial work stressors include increased job demands in connection with low control possibilities and lack of gratification, interpersonal conflicts, role stress and social isolation. For the treatment of work-related clinical depression, an additional focus of interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) of depression, namely "work-related stress and burnout experience" was conceptualized based on a vulnerability-stress model and the fact that work usually takes place in an interpersonal context. This new problem area focuses on role stress and conflicts at work and the reduction of stressful working conditions. Interpersonal psychotherapy has so far been useful for the treatment of depression due to problems at work; however, further studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of this newly designed problem area.

The term burnout is associated with an intensive debate on psychological stress in the modern working environment and the potential risks for mental health imposed by working conditions. However, this important discourse on how to design working conditions is hindered by a lack of differentiation of several distinct entities: prevention of mental work strain on the one hand and treatment care for persons affected by burnout syndrome accompanied by a manifest psychiatric disorder on the other. In view of these rather different work fields several shortcomings need to be pointed out: in Germany psychosocial risk assessment and prevention of mental work strain are insufficiently carried out on a company level. Means of interventions for people with pure burnout syndrome are numerous but the evaluation in terms of efficiency and long-term effects cannot be considered satisfactory in view of the existing studies. Therapy for patients with an existing psychiatric disorder and burnout should incorporate and focus on the working context as well, for example with a corresponding facultative module. For these groups an all-encompassing stepped-care model should be developed by involving all relevant players on the company level, the political level and the healthcare system.

The general efficacy of psychotherapeutic approaches in the treatment of mental disorders has been demonstrated by meta-analyses. Disorder-specific methods are increasingly dominating the field. In the field of depression psychological interventions have proven to be as equally effective as pharmacotherapy in mild and moderate depressives but with longer lasting effects after termination of treatment. The combination of both methods is particularly relevant for the therapy of severe and chronic depression. The indications should be differentiated beyond the severity and course of the disorder, e.g. according to previous traumatization, comorbidity, patient difficulty and the empirical evidence of the different approaches.

Unipolar depressive disorders are among the most frequent reasons for utilizing the health care system. Although efficacious treatments are available and further advances have recently been made there is still a need for improving diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Alignment of treatment on evidence-based treatment guidelines establishes an essential mainstay. The new S3 and National Health Care guidelines on unipolar depression, the compilation of which was coordinated by the German Society of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Neurology (DGPPN) and which were approved by 29 scientific and professional associations, is the ambitious effort to present state of the art evidence and clinical consensus for the treatment of depression. For pharmacotherapy of depression differentiated recommendations can be given, also separate from and in addition to psychotherapy.

Pharmacological neuroenhancement is an attempt to increase cognitive performance in healthy humans. Learning and memory, attention and vigilance or mood and social interaction are targeted by a modulation of brain plasticity. Firstly, an analysis of the current state of research shows that, until now, clinical trials of neuroenhancing drugs have demonstrated only limited efficacy and long-term side effects remain largely unexplored. Secondly, we argue that, from an ethical perspective, neuroenhancement differs from socially mediated methods of learning. Pharmacological neuroenhancement is based on notions of efficacy and control that threaten to undermine other important aspects of mental capacities.

Only few studies investigated the effectiveness of psychotherapy in post-stroke depression (PSD). The aim of this feasibility study was to compare interpersonal psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, and their combination regarding depression and rehabilitation outcome.Post-stroke depression was found in 35% of 485 stroke patients examined. Seventy-four PSD patients were randomised to one of three treatment conditions. Severity of depression was measured by the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. The Barthel Index and a questionnaire for health-related quality of life were used as measurements of rehabilitation outcome.There were no significant differences between the three groups in patient mood or rehabilitation outcome. Concerning the severity of depression, quality of life, and social support, all patients showed benefits from antidepressive treatment. In addition a correlation was found between rehabilitation outcome and depression.In this feasibility study all antidepressive treatments were successfully implemented in the rehabilitation of post-stroke depressed patients. Combination therapy (interpersonal psychotherapy plus medication) was as effective as one of those elements alone. Because of the small sample size however, further randomized trials are required.

The use of psychotherapeutic strategies is essential in the treatment of affective disorders. Psychotherapy proved to be at least equivalent to antidepressant medication in the treatment of mild to moderate depression. In severe cases, the combination of both treatments is considered by guidelines to be the standard treatment. Psychotherapeutic approaches show a longer latency than antidepressants; however, the effects are longer lasting. Regarding the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy sobering results have been published recently. Therefore, the further development of psychotherapy deserves special attention. Cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy provide the highest evidence. The empirical basis for psychodynamic psychotherapies is still limited. In the treatment of chronic depression a new approach--cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy--is gaining importance. There is a trend towards an increasing specification of psychotherapy for distinct subgroups of depressed patients. Challenges for the future include increasing treatment efficacy, investigating mechanisms of efficacy and predictors for a differential indication, and making effective approaches generally available to all patients.

Because of the new medical licensure act in Germany, much more bedside teaching than before is needed. For many of the relevant clinical pictures, few patients can be expected to undergo study lessons. That is why many universities use simulated patients (SP). In contrast to other disciplines such as internal medicine or surgery, there is not much literature about SP in psychiatry and psychotherapy. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate if SP used for clinical teaching in addition to real patients are well accepted for simulation of psychiatric illnesses and clinical teaching. After randomization, one half of the 139 study medical students were taught using real patients and the other half using real patients and SP. The amounts of patient contact were equal in both groups. Using a questionnaire, pre- and postanalysis was carried out of answers about communication skills, the capability of addressing difficult subjects such as suicidality, and interest in psychiatry. The acceptance rate of SP was very high. Students' ratings of clinical teaching and their own performance, and their interest in future psychiatric work were significantly higher in the SP group. The results of this pilot study are very encouraging and indicate that the systematic use of SP in clinical psychiatric teaching is not only an appropriate alternative to real patients but also can lead to higher quality.

Inpatient treatment is the most costly sector of treatment for depressive disorders in Germany. However, little is known about which patient and hospital characteristics contribute to costs of inpatient episodes.To take part in this study, patients had to fullfill criteria for ICD-10 diagnosis of F31.3-F31.5, F32, F33, F34.1, F43.20, or F43.21. Episodes were recorded between September 9 2001 and March 3 2003 in ten hospitals in three German states. Inpatient records of 1,202 persons were analysed. Multiple regression analysis was performed to identify significant patient predictors of cost per inpatient episode, and the predictive function of hospital characteristics was analysed by applying hierarchical linear modeling.Patient characteristics at admission could not explain a substantial part of the variance in episode costs. Better prediction was possible including variables from the whole treatment process. Also, conditions for admission and patient-related factors did not well explain cost differences between hospitals, but characteristics of the whole treatment were.For predicting costs of inpatient depressive episodes, the complete course treatment has to be considered. As in the physiologic sector, therapeutic and diagnostic procedures have a great effect on cost prediction.

Chronic depression is a common disorder which causes significant impairment and enormous treatment costs. Traditional pharmacological and psychological treatment approaches have shown only modest success. The Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP) by James McCullough is the only therapy developed specifically for chronic depression. It integrates behavioral, cognitive, and interpersonal strategies. The approach is supported empirically and shown to be effective. This article presents the state of the art regarding research in psychotherapeutic treatment for chronic depression. In addition, the development of the approach and therapeutic strategies and techniques of CBASP are described.

Patient outcome and guideline conformity in inpatient schizophrenia treatment was systematically evaluated and compared with 597 patients across seven psychiatric hospitals. Patient structure and treatment processes showed a great variability between hospitals. Patient characteristics, especially mental state, and the chronicity of the disease were the strongest predictors of clinical outcome. Outcome evaluation using quality indicators is only possible after case-mix adjustment taking into account prognostic factors. A poorer average clinical outcome was associated with lower guideline conformity in a variety of treatment domains. After case-mix adjustment, benchmarking is an opportunity to improve quality of treatment and promote guideline conformity.

Several quality assurance initiatives in health care have been undertaken during the past years. The next step consists of systematically combining single initiatives in order to built up a strategic quality management.In a German multicenter study, the quality of inpatient depression treatment was measured in ten psychiatric hospitals. Half of the hospitals received comparative feedback on their individual results in comparison to the other hospitals (bench marking). Those bench markings were used by each hospital as a statistic basis for in-house quality work, to improve the quality of depression treatment.According to hospital differences concerning procedure and outcome, different goals were chosen. There were also differences with respect to structural characteristics, strategies, and outcome. The feedback from participants about data-based quality circles in general and the availability of bench-marking data was positive. The necessity of carefully choosing quality circle members and professional moderation became obvious.Data-based quality circles including bench-marking have proven to be useful for quality management in inpatient depression care.

During 1998-2000 a quality assurance program for diagnosis and treatment of depression was conducted in 24 hospitals for psychiatry and psychotherapy in Baden-Wurttemberg (southern Germany). Process and outcome quality of 3,000 depressive patients was documented at admission and discharge. The article focuses on therapeutic measures, duration, outcome, patient satisfaction, and their interactions. The results show that the patients' satisfaction with the care received is very high and the pre-post effect sizes of inpatient treatment for depression are high.

In the outpatient treatment of depression, the potential of diagnostic and therapeutic methods is seldom exhausted resulting in variable quality of treatment and partly insufficient cost effectiveness. Implementation of a guideline-oriented reimbursement system seems to be an option to improve quality of treatment. Corresponding incentive systems have been outlined and evaluated for the health care of somatic diseases such as diabetes. Acting on these experiences, an attempt was made to utilize them for the area of psychiatric disorders. Taking depression as an example, a model for a quality-oriented, guideline-based reimbursement system for general and specialist practice is presented.

Over the last few years, a shift in paradigm has taken place in the diagnosis and therapy of insomnia. Traditionally, treatment focused on improving night sleep, i.e. shortening sleep latency and prolonging total sleep time. Modern approaches aim at improving or restoring the recuperative value of sleep and ensuring daytime functioning on a social, psychological and professional level. Based on the guidelines "Non-restorative Sleep" of the German Society of Sleep Research and Sleep Medicine, this article presents a clinical algorithm for the diagnosis and therapy of non-restorative sleep with predominant insomnia. The term "non-restorative sleep" permits us to view the restorative value of sleep and the resulting daytime functioning of the individual afflicted with insomnia as the focus for the diagnosis of and therapy for insomnia. This algorithm is suitable for the clinical practice of outpatient psychiatric and psychotherapeutic services as well as for psychiatric inpatients. The main features for psychiatrists and psychotherapists in the diagnosis and therapy of non-restorative sleep are underlying psychiatric-psychological factors or secondary psychiatric sequelae of chronic primary insomnias. For primary, organic and psychiatric insomnias, a broad spectrum of psychopharmacological and cognitive behavioral methods can be applied either alone or in combination.

Controlled studies and meta-analyses show not only that depression and cardiovascular disease often occur together, but that depressive illnesses are an independent risk factor in the development and the progression of coronary heart disease. It can be difficult to distinguish between reactive mood disturbance after myocardial infarction and depressive episodes that may have preceded the infarction and which require treatment. Due to this difficulty, depressive disorders are rarely diagnosed, and only a minority of patients receive adequate treatment. However, owing to the introduction of new antidepressants in recent years, the number of treatment options has increased. Specifically, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) offer a valuable alternative to tricyclic antidepressants, which are problematic in heart disease. The authors describe on the one hand controlled studies of SSRIs and discuss differential therapeutic consequences. On the other hand, studies of psychotherapeutic interventions in comorbid patients with depression and coronary heart disease are reported. Finally, the authors discuss which psychotherapeutic interventions may be suitable.

Forty-eight-hour rapid cycling is a rare subclass of affective disorders and entails a regular periodic change of moods. The following case study describes the symptoms, therapy, and outcome of a patient suffering from daily switching between mania and depression along with neurobiological findings correlated to the affective cycles. We found alternating reduction and prolongation of sleep duration during manic and depressive days as well as differences in the amount of REM sleep. Cortisol secretion was regularly increased during depressive days. Regarding thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion, the circadian rhythm was absent on depressive days. However, the glucose metabolic rate as measured by positron emission tomography (PET) did not differ on manic and depressive days. The patient reached almost complete remission under treatment with lithium.

Preclinical investigations suggest that the neuropeptide substance P might be involved in the etiopathology of pain, depression, and anxiety. In a recent study, the substance P receptor antagonist MK-869 showed antidepressant and anxiolytic activity in depressed outpatients which was comparable to a standard SSRI. The MK-869 was well tolerated. Although these findings are promising, further studies are necessary to prove the hypothesis that substance P receptor antagonists represent a new class of antidepressants or anxiolytics. Respective studies are currently underway.

Many of the diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in psychiatry and psychotherapy are based on opinion rather than evidence. The concept of evidence-based medicine aims to bridge the gap between clinical research and clinical decision-making by integrating the best available external evidence with personal expertise. In this article, we demonstrate several examples of the non-evidence-based medicine paradigm. Then we show the usefulness and practicability of the new evidence-based medicine paradigm by using a clinical example. Finally, we discuss the consequences, chances, and limitations of this new model. We also examine the role of the individual clinician's viewpoint as well as the need of institutional re-engineering and the possible restructuring of the entire health care system towards evidence-based methods.

In differential diagnosis of a delir also adverse effects of medicaments have to be taken into account beside other causes. We report a case of an agitated delir with nocturnal disturbance of consciousness, confusion, restlessness and sleeplessness. This delir existed exclusively during the therapy of a cutaneous herpes zoster with zovirax-pills which can only be explained by a causal connection--after exclusion of other causes. As a so far undescribed predisposition for neurotoxicity of oral therapy with acyclovir signs of vascular encephalopathy were found in the patient's cranial magnetic resonance imaging. The central nervous side effects of acyclovir were summarized shortly.

Nearly all psychotropic drugs are metabolized by hepatic cytochrome P450-enzymes. In humans, there are 5 isoenzymes involved in this process. The activity of these enzymes can be modulated by a number of commonly used drugs, yielding potentially hazardous interactions. Most of the recently introduced selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are potent inhibitors of cytochrome P450 enzymes. Thus, the plasma concentrations of tricyclic antidepressants or clozapine might be elevated into toxic levels. In contrast, carbamazepine induces most of the isoenzymes. This potentiates the elimination of tricyclics and antipsychotics and might cause a serious risk for the recurrence of depressive or psychotic symptoms. Moreover, 5-10% of the population are slow metabolizers of CYP2D6. This group is prone to increased adverse effects of moderately dosed medication. This review systematically points out the reported or predicted pharmacokinetic drug interactions in psychopharmacology focussing on clinical significance.

Microglia are the resident macrophages of the brain. They are the central cellular element to initiate defense mechanisms against destructive environmental influences and to facilitate regenerative processes. No other cell type of the brain is endowed with a comparably comprehensive, immunocompetent machinery like microglia. It encompasses cell proliferation, migration and differentiation into full-blown macrophages able to present antigen and to phagocytose cell debris. Relatively little is known about these stages of microglia activation on the cellular and molecular level, although microglia have been described as a separate cell type of the brain as early as in the 30ies of this century by P.del Rio Hortega. This review summarizes the data that have accumulated until now in this respect and tries to embed them into a clinical framework. Special focus has been given to the role of this cell type in the development and progression of Multiple Sclerosis, HIV-associated dementia and Alzheimer's disease.

Quality-assurance activities will become more important in psychiatry during the next few years. In relation to other medical disciplines, some special aspects concerning structure, process and outcome quality as well as practical realization and methodologic aspects must be considered. These specific issues were the focus of a study dealing with the treatment of depressed inpatients. The experiences and results as well as considerations concerning future quality-assurance projects are discussed.

Psychiatric symptoms may be caused by systemic autoimmune diseases. Quite often, mental disorders are an early symptom during the course of an autoimmune disease and sometimes they may even be the presenting symptom. This article reviews psychiatric and neurologic symptoms in systemic lupus erythematodes, Sjögren syndrome, primary vasculitides and other immunopathies such as the primary antiphospholipid syndrome and Sneddon's syndrome. The article also discusses diagnostic aspects and therapeutic options if an autoimmune disease as cause of a psychiatric or neurologic symptom is suspected. An increased awareness of psychiatrists and neurologists will make it possible that systemic autoimmune diseases are early identified as a possible cause of psychiatric symptoms and may then be treated adequately.

M. Linehan developed "dialectical behavioral therapy" specifically to treat chronically suicidal borderline patients. It rests on a biosocial model that assumes a disorder in the regulation of emotions and in tolerance of stress. The numerous dysfunctional patterns of behavior such as self-destructive behavior, inability to govern impulses or severe dissociative phenomena are regarded as attempts at problem-solving. This concept of therapy focuses on the continuing balance between the necessity of accepting maladaptive behavior patterns in both an intrapsychic and an interactional context while still working to change them. A comprehensive manual outlines the clearly structured therapy and integrates a wide choice of therapeutic strategies. Parallel to development of the therapy itself, a method also was developed for testing therapist adherence to the manual's guidelines, thus providing a basis for empirical evaluation. An initial controlled, randomized study demonstrated the significant superiority of this method to methods of unspecific psychotherapy at various levels. In the current endeavor to develop disorder-specific approaches to the treatment of personality disorders, "dialectical behavioral therapy" is a noteworthy model.

This article reviews the chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), a disorder whose etiology is unknown. The diagnostic criteria proposed in 1994 by the CDC and the International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Study Group are introduced. In contrast to widespread belief, there are no laboratory tests available to underpin the diagnosis of CFS; the diagnosis is made solely on the basis of clinical criteria. In the differential diagnosis, the exclusion of other conditions that can cause chronic fatigue, such as neuropsychiatric or sleep disorders, is of critical importance. In this context, the question as to whether CFS is a clinical entity that can be differentiated from psychiatric diagnoses, such as depression, somatoform disorder, or neurasthenia, is discussed. At the moment, there is no specific therapy for CFS. Therefore, therapeutic approaches are limited to symptomatic management of the concomitant sleep disturbances, pain, or psychiatric symptoms, such as depression. Patients may benefit from cognitive behavioral therapy, as this may help then to identify and exclude factors contributing to and maintaining chronic fatigue. An integrated medical and psychological approach should be adopted, with the aim of preventing significant secondary negative results of the illness, such as interpersonal conflicts or chronic disability.

A 56-year-old female patient had a history of more than 10 years' duration of a bipolar affective disorder manifest mainly as depressive episodes. These episodes used to occur once or twice each year, frequently leading to hospital admission. On average, the episodes lasted for about 2 months, and they tended to be followed by brief periods of hypomania. Only once, in 1986, did a manic episode make hospitalization necessary. Attempted prophylaxis with lithium at therapeutic plasma levels did not prove effective. Treatment with carbamazepine was discontinued because of leukopenia. The most recent stay in hospital became necessary because of a depressive episode that lasted for 5 months and did not respond to therapy. On admission the patient's score on the Hamilton depression scale was 23. When the calcium antagonist nimodipine was given at a dosage quickly escalated to 360 mg daily, the patient could be discharged in a state of complete remission after 26 days. For the first time in many years she has been emotionally stable for almost 1 year with single agent nimodipine therapy at 180 mg daily.

There exist a variety of American and European recommendations regarding treatment with hypnotics, especially the duration of treatment. The German Sleep Society now publishes its own view to help physicians to cope with these different recommendations, some of which are contradictory. Therapy with hypnotics must include substantial information on the type of drug, dose, timing and duration as well as information about the possibility of interval treatment. Agonists at the benzodiazepine receptor, like the conventional benzodiazepines and zopiclone or zolpideme, are indicated in short-lasting adjustment insomnia as well as in long-lasting psychophysiological insomnia. Regarding the duration of prescription the German Sleep Society recommends a period of 14 days in de novo patients, which can be repeated once only. In persisting insomnias further approaches should disregard benzodiazepine receptor agonists, but rely on other classes of substances such as tricyclic antidepressants instead. If such approaches are ineffective, the intake of benzodiazepine receptor agonists may be extended to 6 months, when a sleep log and objective observations have documented a true sleep deficit, when daytime impairment arises, when daytime impairment arises, when rebound insomnia, organic or mental insomnias and dependencies have been excluded, and when the indication is monitored at 14-day intervals. If the insomnia persists, during and in spite of therapy a specialist in sleep medicine should be consulted. If therapy is still ineffective after 3 months of daily treatment, a sleep laboratory should be consulted.